Elementary Fluid Dynamics

The Bernoulli Equation

Newtons Second Law: F = ma

Consider inviscid, steady, two-dimensional flow in x-z plane

Define streamlines
Select coordinate systems based on streamlines
Define acceleration
Define forces
Apply Newtons second law of motion along and across streamline

Newtons Second Law: F = ma

Prior to apply Newtons second law of motion to fluid particle:

Consider motion of an inviscid fluid
Assume that fluid motion is governed by pressure and gravity forces
Select an appropriate coordinate system. Consider two dimensional motion (x-z
plane)

Coordinate System

Prior to apply Newtons second law of motion to fluid particle:

Consider motion of an inviscid fluid
Assume that fluid motion is governed by pressure and gravity forces
Select an appropriate coordinate system. Consider two dimensional motion (x-z
plane)

Coordinate System

Motion of a fluid particle is described by its velocity vector

Coordinate System

Motion of a fluid particle is described by its velocity vector

As the particle moves, it follows a particular path, the shape of which is governed by
velocity vector

Coordinate System

Motion of a fluid particle is described by its velocity vector

As the particle moves, it follows a particular path, the shape of which is governed by
velocity vector
If flow is steady, each successive particle that passes through given point (1) will
follow the same path. For such cases the path is a fixed line in the x-z plane. The
entire x-z plane is filled with such paths.

Coordinate System

For steady flow each particle slides along its path and its velocity vector is
everywhere tangent to the path

Streamlines

For steady flow each particle slides along its path and its velocity vector is
everywhere tangent to the path
The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field are called
streamlines.

Streamlines

For steady flow each particle slides along its path and its velocity vector is
everywhere tangent to the path
The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field are called
streamlines.
We will use coordinates based on streamlines

Particle Motion

Particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s = s(t), along streamline, and
local radius of curvature = (s)

Particle Motion

Particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s = s(t), along streamline, and
local radius of curvature = (s)
Distance s is related to particles speed V = ds/dt, and radius of curvature is related
to the shape of streamline

Particle Acceleration

Acceleration:

a d V dt

Particle Acceleration
a d V dt

Acceleration:

Components of acceleration in s and n directions:

V
as V
,
s

V2
an

Forces

To determine forces consider free-body diagram of small fluid particle

F = ma along a Streamline

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle

F = ma along a Streamline
Equation of motion along streamline
(details)
Change in fluid particle speed is accomplished
by combination of pressure gradient and particle
weight along streamline

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle

sin

p
V
V
as
s
s

Example 3.1 Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the horizontal
streamline AB in front of the sphere of radius a. From a more advanced theory of flow
past a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is

a 3
V V0 1 3
x

Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A far in front of the
sphere (xA = and VA = V0) to point B on the sphere (xB = a and VB = 0).

Example 3.1 Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the horizontal
streamline AB in front of the sphere of radius a. From a more advanced theory of flow
past a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is

a 3
V V0 1 3
x

Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A far in front of the
sphere (xA = and VA = V0) to point B on the sphere (xB = a and VB = 0).

Solution Streamline is horizontal, then

p
V
V
s
s

Acceleration

V
V
a 3 a 3
2
V
V
3V0 1 3 4
s
x
x x

Example 3.1 Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the horizontal
streamline AB in front of the sphere of radius a. From a more advanced theory of flow
past a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is

a 3
V V0 1 3
x

Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A far in front of the
sphere (xA = and VA = V0) to point B on the sphere (xB = a and VB = 0).

Solution Pressure gradient

3 2
3
3
p 3 a V0 1 a x

x
x4

Pressure distribution
6
3

a
x

2
p V0

2
x

V02
pB
2

F = ma along a Streamline
Equation of motion along streamline

sin

can be rearranged (details)

dp

1
d V 2 dz 0
2

(along streamline)

and integrated

dp 1 2
2 V gz C

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle

(along a streamline)

p
V
V
as
s
s

Bernoulli Equation
For incompressible fluid equation of motion along streamline reduces to Bernoulli
equation

1
V 2 z constant along streamline
2

Restricted to:
- inviscid flow
- steady flow
- incompressible flow
- along streamline

Example 3.2 Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with
velocity V0. Determine the difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).

Example 3.2 Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with
velocity V0. Determine the difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).
Solution Apply Bernoulli equation between (1) and (2)
p1

1
1
V12 z1 p2 V22 z2
2
2

Pressure difference
p2 p1

1
1
V12 V02
2
2

F = ma Normal to a Streamline
Equation of motion along the normal direction (details)

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle

F = ma Normal to a Streamline
Equation of motion along the normal direction

Change in the direction of flow of a fluid

particle is accomplished by combination of
pressure gradient and particle weight normal to
streamline

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle

dz p V 2

dn n

Example 3.3 Shown in Fig. a, b are two flow fields with circular streamlines. The
velocity distributions are
V r C1r
for case (a )
C2
for case (b)
r
where C1 and C2 are constant. Determine the pressure distributions, p = p(r), for each,
given that p = p0 at r = r0.
V r

Example 3.3 Shown in Fig. a, b are two flow fields with circular streamlines. The
velocity distributions are
V r C1r
for case (a )
C2
for case (b)
r
where C1 and C2 are constant. Determine the pressure distributions, p = p(r), for each,
given that p = p0 at r = r0.
V r

Solution Assume steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow

with streamlines in horizontal plane
dz p V 2

dn n

Example 3.3 Shown in Fig. a, b are two flow fields with circular streamlines. The
velocity distributions are
V r C1r
for case (a )
C2
for case (b)
r
where C1 and C2 are constant. Determine the pressure distributions, p = p(r), for each,
given that p = p0 at r = r0.
V r

Solution Assume steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow

with streamlines in horizontal plane (dz/dn = 0)
Since streamlines are circles, /n = - /r and = r
Then equation of motion along the normal
dz p V 2

dn n

becomes
p V 2

r
r

Example 3.3 Shown in Fig. a, b are two flow fields with circular streamlines. The
velocity distributions are
V r C1r
for case (a )
C2
for case (b)
r
where C1 and C2 are constant. Determine the pressure distributions, p = p(r), for each,
given that p = p0 at r = r0.
V r

Solution
For case (a)
p
C12 r
r

1
C12 r 2 r02 p0
2

and

and

1
1
2 1
p C2 2 2 p0
2
r0 r

For case (b)

p C22
3
r
r

Comments: (a) forced vortex, (b) free vortex (tornado),

F = ma Normal to a Streamline
For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow
V2
p
dn z constant across streamline

Restricted to:
- inviscid flow
- steady flow
- incompressible flow
- across streamline

Physical Interpretation
For steady flow of an inviscid and incompressible fluid:
p

1
V 2 z constant along streamline
2

Work done on a particle by all forces acting on the particle is equal to the change of the
kinetic energy of the particle
Each term of Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as head (elevation, pressure, velocity)
p V2

z constant along streamline

2g
Bernoulli equation state that the sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and
elevation head is constant along a streamline

Example 3.4

Example 3.4

Pressure variation across straight streamlines is hydrostatic

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Useful concept associated with the Bernoulli equation deals with the stagnation and
dynamic pressures.
As fluid is brought to rest its kinetic energy is converted to a pressure rise

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Each term in Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a form of pressure; static, p,
hydrostatic, z, and dynamic, V 2/2 ,
p

1
V 2 z constant along streamline
2

Point (2) is a stagnation point

p2 p1

1
V12
2

Pressure at the stagnation point

is greater than static pressure
by dynamic pressure

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is placed onto a flowing
fluid

Some of the fluid flows over and some under the object. Dividing line is
termed the stagnation streamline and terminates at the stagnation point on the
body

Location of the stagnation point is function of body shape.

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

If elevation effect are neglected, stagnation pressure, p + V2/2, is the largest

pressure obtainable along a given streamline. It represents the conversion of all of
the kinetic energy into a pressure rise.

Sum of the static pressure, hydrostatic pressure, and dynamic pressure is termed the
total pressure, pT

Bernoulli equation is a statement that total pressure remains constant along a

streamline.
p

1
V 2 z pT constant along streamline
2

Fluid Velocity Measurement

Pitot-static tubes measure fluid velocity by converting velocity into pressure

2 p3 p4

Pitot-static tube

Typical Pitot-Static Tube Designs

Measurement of Static Pressure

Incorrect and correct design of static pressure taps

Fluid Velocity Measurement

Many velocity measurement devices use Pitot-static tube principle

If 0 and 29.5o
p1 p3 p

V 2
p2 p
2
V

2 p2 p1

Cross section of a directional-finding

Pitot-static tube

Examples of Use of Bernoulli Equation

Free Jets
Exit pressure for an incompressible fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure

Velocity:
at (2)
at (5)

Vertical flow from a tank

Free Jets
Exit pressure for an incompressible fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure

Velocity:
at (2)

V 2 gh

at (5) V 2 g h H

Vertical flow from a tank

Free Jets
For horizontal nozzle velocity is not uniform
If d h centerline velocity can be used as an average velocity

Horizontal flow from a tank

Free Jets
If exit is not smooth, diameter of the jet will be less than diameter of the hole.
Vena contracta effect is a result of the inability of the fluid to turn the sharp 90 corner
Since streamlines in the exit plane are curved, the pressure across them is not constant.
The highest pressure occurs along the centerline at (2), and lowest pressure, p1 = p3 = 0

Vena contracta effect for a sharp-edged orifice

Free Jets
Assumption of uniform velocity with straight streamlines and constant pressure is not
valid at the exit plane
It is valid in the plane of vena contracta, section a-a, provided dj h

Vena contracta effect for a sharp-edged orifice

Free Jets
Vena contracta effect is a function of the geometry of the outlet.
Contraction coefficient:
Cc Aj Ah

Typical flow patterns and

contraction coefficients for
various round exit configurations

Confined Flows
In nozzles and pipes of variable diameter velocity changes from one section to another
For such cases continuity equation must be used along with Bernoulli equation
Continuity equation states that mass cannot be created or destroyed
For incompressible fluid (details)
AV
1 1 A2V2

or

Q1 Q2

Example 3.7 A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1 m

flows steadily from a tank of diameter D = 1.0 m.
Determine the flowrate, Q , needed from the inflow pipe
if the water depth remains constant, h = 2.0 m

Example 3.7 A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1 m

flows steadily from a tank of diameter D = 1.0 m.
Determine the flowrate, Q , needed from the inflow pipe
if the water depth remains constant, h = 2.0 m
Solution
Assume steady, inviscid, incompressible flow.
Apply Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2)
p1

1
1
V12 z1 p2 V22 z2
2
2

With p1 = p2 = 0, z1 = h and z2 = 0

1 2
1
V1 gh V22
2
2

From continuity equation

d
V1 V2
D

2 gh

Exit velocity

V2

and volume flowrate

3
Q AV
1 1 A2V2 0.0492 m /s

1 d D

6.26 m/s

Example 3.7 A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1 m

flows steadily from a tank of diameter D = 1.0 m.
Determine the flowrate, Q , needed from the inflow pipe
if the water depth remains constant, h = 2.0 m
Solution
If D d, then we can assume V1 0. Error associated
with this assumption:

Q
V2

Q0 V2 D

4
2 gh 1 d D
1

4
2 gh
1 d D

Example 3.8

Example 3.8

Answers:

V3

2 p1
69.0 m/s

Q 0.00542 m 3 / s

V2 =7.67 m/s
p2 2963 N/m 2

Comments: V3 is determined strictly by the value of p1

In absence of viscous effect pressure throughout the hose is constant and equals to p2
Decrease in pressure from p1 to p3 accelerate the air and increase its kinetic energy
Pressure change (density change) is within 3%. Hence, incompressibility assumption is
reasonable

Example 3.9

Q 1 A2 A1
h
2 g 1 SG
A2
2

Answer:

Comments:
For a given flowrate h does not depend
on , but pressure difference, p1 p2, as
measured by pressure gage, does

Cavitation
Cavitation occurs when the
pressure is reduced to the
vapor pressure
Cavitation can cause damage
to equipment

Pressure variation and cavitation in a variable area pipe

Cavitation

Tip cavitation from a propeller

Example 3.10

at 60F vapor pressure is 0.256 psia

Answer:

H 28.2 ft

Comments: Results are independent of diameter and length of the hose (provided viscous
effects are not important
Proper design of hose is needed to ensure that it will not collapse due to the large pressure
difference (vacuum) between the inside and outsides of the hose

Flowrate Measurement
Various flow meters are governed
by the Bernoulli and continuity
equations
We consider ideal flow meters
those devoid of viscous,
compressibility, and other effects.
The flowrate is a function of the
pressure difference across the flow
meter
Q A2

Typical devices for measuring flowrate

2 p1 p2

1 A2 A1

Example 3.11

Answer:

1.16 kPa p1 p2 116 kPa

Comments:
These values represent ideal results, and these results are independent of flow meter
geometry an orifice, nozzle, or Venturi meter.
Tenfold increase in flowrate requires one-hundredfold increase in pressure difference. This
nonlinear relationship can cause difficulties when measuring flowrates over a wide range
of values. An alternative is to use two flow meters in parallel

Flowrate Measurement. Sluice Gate

The flowrate under a sluice gate depends on the water depths on either side of the gate
Q z2b

2 g z1 z2

1 z2 z1

In the limit of z1z2

Q z2b 2 gz1
A vena contracta occurs as water
flows under a sluice gate

Sluice gate geometry

Flowrate Measurement. Sharp-crested Weir

Flowrate over a weir is a function of the head on the weir

Q C1 Hb 2 gH C1b 2 g H 3 2

Rectangular, sharp-crested weir geometry

Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line

Hydraulic grade line and energy line are graphical forms of the Bernoulli equation
Energy line represents the total head available to the fluid
Locus provided by a series of piezometric taps is termed the hydraulic grade line

Representation of the
energy line and the
hydraulic grade line

Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line

If the flow is steady, incompressible, and inviscid, the energy line is horizontal and at the
elevation of the liquid in the tank.
Hydraulic grade line lies a distance of one velocity head below the energy line
At the pipe outlet the pressure head is zero (gage) so the pipe elevation and hydraulic
grade line coincide

Energy line and hydraulic

grade line for flow from a tank

Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line

The distance from pipe to hydraulic grade line indicates the pressure within the pipe
For flow below the hydraulic grade line, the pressure is positive
For flow above the hydraulic grade line, the pressure is negative

Use of the energy line

and hydraulic grade line

Restriction on Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Restrictions on use for the Bernoulli equation are imposed by the assumptions used in its
derivation.
To avoid incorrect use of Bernoulli equation one must take into account:
- Compressibility effects;
- Unsteady effects;
- Rotational effects;
- Viscosity effects;
- Presence of mechanical devices (pumps, turbines)

Change of scene, and absence of the necessity for thought,

will restore the mental equilibrium
(Jerom K. Jerom, Three Men In a Boat)

END OF CHAPTER

Supplementary slides

F = ma along a Streamline
Newtons second law along streamline

Fs mas mV

V
V
V V
s
s

F = ma along a Streamline
Gravity force

Ws W sin V sin

F = ma along a Streamline
Pressure force

Fps p ps n y p ps n y

p
V
s

F = ma along a Streamline
Net force

sin

s
s
ps

V
s

back

Bernoulli Equation
p
V
V
s
s

Consider equation

sin

Along streamline

sin

Also

2
V 1 d V
V

s 2 ds

(a)

dz
ds

Finally, along streamline value of n is constant (dn = 0) so that

dp

p
p
p
ds dn
ds
s
n
s

Hence, along streamline p/s = dp/ds . Then equation (a) becomes

dp

1
d V 2 dz 0
2

Integration at constant density gives Bernoulli equation

(along streamline)

back

F = ma Normal to a Streamline
Newton second law in normal direction

mV 2 V V 2
Fn

F = ma Normal to a Streamline
Gravity force

Wn W cos V cos

F = ma Normal to a Streamline
Pressure force

Fpn p pn s y p pn s y

p
V
n

F = ma Normal to a Streamline
Net force

Fn Wn Fpn cos V
n

back

Continuity Equation
Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume. If the flow is steady, rate at which fluid
flows into the volume must equal the rate at which it flows out of the volume (mass is
conserved)
Mass flow rate is given by
Volume flow rate

m& Q
Q VA

1 AV
1 1 2 A2V2

Conservation of mass requires

If density remains constant

AV
1 1 A2V2

back

Compressibility Effects
Bernoulli equation can be modified for compressible flows.
For compressible, inviscid, isothermal, steady flows:
V12
RT p1
V22
z1
ln
z2
2g
g
2g
p2

Use of above equation is restricted by inviscid flow assumptions, since most isothermal
flows are accompanied by viscous effects.
For compressible, isentropic (no friction or heat transfer), steady flow of a perfect gas:
k p1 V12
k
p2 V22

gz1

gz2

2
k

1
2

Compressibility Effects
Bernoulli equation for compressible flow can be written for pressure ratio as

p2 p1
k 1

1
Ma12

p1
2

k
k 1

Where Ma = V/c is the Mach number; c is local speed of sound

A rule of thumb is that the flow of
a perfect gas may be considered as
incompressible provided the Mach
number is less than about 0.3

Pressure ratio as a function of

Mach number for incompressible
and compressible (isentropic) flow

back

Unsteady Effects
Bernoulli equation can be modified for unsteady flows.
For incompressible, inviscid, unsteady flows:
s2 V
V12
V22
p1
z1
ds p2
z2
s1 t
2
2

Use of this equation requires knowledge of variation of V/t along the streamline

back

Example 3.12

Answers:

Comments: ?

Q
4.83 m 2 /s
b

Example 3.13

Answers:

Q3 H 0
QH 0
Comments: ?

C2 2 gh C2 tan
2 ghH 5 2
2
2
52
C2 tan 2 2 g 3H 0

Q AV H 2 tan

C2 tan 2 2 g H 0

52

Example 3.14

Answers:
Comments: ?

Example 3.16

Answers:

Comments: ?

2g
l

Example 3.17

Answers:
Comments: ?

V12
p2
h 518 kPa
2

Example 3.18

Compressibility Effects
Bernoulli equation for compressible
flow can be written for pressure ratio as

p2 p1
k 1

1
Ma12

p1
2

k
k 1

Where Ma = V/c is the Mach number; c

is local speed of sound
Pressure ratio as a function of Mach number for
incompressible and compressible (isentropic) flow

Quiz
A rule of thumb is that the flow of a perfect gas may be considered as incompressible
provided the Mach number is less than about _____ ?

Measurement of Static Pressure

Typical pressure distribution along a Pitot-static tube