ME403 Chapter 2

2D Airfoil Aerodynamics

Lift is mainly provided by

the wing with an airfoil
cross-section shape

Airfoil Geometry
An airfoil is the 2D crosssection shape of the wing,
which creates sufficient lift
with minimal drag

Historical Airfoils

Historical Airfoils

Typical Streamlines

Angle of Attack

Pressure Distribution
99500
99550

Upper Surface Pressure

Surface Pressue, P, N/sq m

99600
99650
99700
99750
99800
99850

Lower Surface Pressure

Net Normal Force

99900

n ( Pl Pu )dx

99950

100000
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Chordwise Distance, x, m

0.8

Pressure Coefficient Distribution

p p
cp 1
2
V
2
In free-stream:

c p

At stagnation point (V=0):

p p
1
0
2
V
2
1
2
1
2

p0 p
c p0 1

1
2
2
V
V
2

Positive Cp means the pressure is higher than the freestream (atmospheric) pressure, and negative Cp means
suction relative to free-stream pressure. The maximum,
which occurs at the stagnation point, is always 1.

Viscous Boundary Layer

Velocity profile creates skin friction (shear) drag on surface

Edge of boundary layer

Transition

Separation

Flat Plate Skin Friction Drag Coefficient

Curve fit formula for

turbulent boundary
layer (Re > 500,000):

Evolution of
Airfoil Design

Laminar boundary
layer creates less skin
friction drag

Boundary Layer Flow Separation

When flow separation occurs,

there is also pressure drag.

Pressure (Form) Drag due to Flow Separation

100% Pressure Drag

Total Profile Drag

= Skin Friction Drag
+ Form Drag

Resultant Aerodynamic Force

Lift

Total Aerodynamic Force

(Sum of Pressure and Shear)

V
Drag

Lift & Drag Coefficients

l
cl 1
2
V S
2
d
cd 1
2
V S
2

lift

normal force

drag

chordwise
force

Center of Pressure
The resultant aerodynamic force acts at the Center of
Pressure (c.p.), about which the moment is zero.

NACA Airfoils and Test Data

4-Digit Series
5-Digit Series
6 Series

Open-Circuit Wind Tunnel

Wind Tunnel Tests

Force transducer behind model senses lift, drag and pitching moment directly.
Motor-controlled mechanism adjusts the models angle of attack.

Closed-Circuit Wind Tunnel

Wing Section Models

Model for measuring lift,

drag and pitching moment

Model for measuring surface

pressure distribution

NACA 0006 Data

at Re = 3,180,000

There is a maximum
Lift-to-Drag ratio (L/D).
Location of Center of
Pressure (c.p.) varies
with

NACA 2312 Data

at Re = 3,120,000

Lift decreases and

drag increases
sharply beyond the
stall (max. Cl) point,
due to boundary
layer separation.

Stalled Airfoil

Reynolds Number Effect

Aerodynamic Center
Since the c.p. varies with , it is more desirable to use a fixed Aerodynamic
Center (a.c.) as the point of action of the lift and drag. The pitching moment
about this point can be calculated, and is found insensitive to . For most
airfoils, the a.c. locates at around quarter chord (x=c/4).

Pitching Moment
Coefficient:

m
cm 1
2

V
Sc
2

Typical Non-Cambered Airfoil

Lift Curve & Drag Polar
NACA 0006

Typical Cambered Airfoil

NACA 2412
Lift Curve & Drag Polar

Airfoil Aerodynamic Characteristics

at Re = 6 million
NACA 0006

NACA 2412

Zero-Lift Angle of Attack (deg.)

-2

Stall Angle of Attack (deg.)

16

Maximum Lift Coefficient

0.9

1.7

Lift Curve Slope (1/deg.)

0.1

0.108

0.05

0.005

0.006

0.7/0.0076 = 92.1

1.0/0.0088 = 113

Moment Coefficient (before stall)

Minimum Drag Coefficient
Max. Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D)

Computation Fluid Dynamics Simulation

CFD Simulation: Near stall

CFD Simulation: Fully Stalled

Airfoil Generator at http://www.ae.su.oz.au/aero/info/index.html

Airfoil Analysis Code at http://www.ae.su.oz.au/aero/info/index.html