Flow in

Soil

Content
Capillary in soil, soil shrinkage and soil
expansion
Head and flow of one and two dimensional
Seepage analyses; flow net, seepage
force, quick sand and liquefaction.

Effect of capillarity
In silts and fine sands, the soil above the groundwater level can be saturated by
capillary action.
Consider a single idealized tube.
Summing forces vertically Fz=
weight of water the tension forces
from capillary action.

d2
zc w dT cos 0
4
4T cos
Solving for z c , zc
d w

zc = the height of capillary rise

T = surface tension (force per unit
length)
= the contact angle
d = diameter of the tube (diameter of
void space

Effect of capillarity
The surface tension of water is 0.073
N/m and the contact angle of water
with a clean glass surface is 0.
Since T, and w are constant,

1
zc
d
For soils, d is assumed to be
equivalent to 0.1D10, where D10 is the
effective size.
From the equation above, the smaller
the soil pores, the higher the capillary
zone. The capillary zone in fine sands
will be larger than for medium or
coarse sands.
4

Effect of capillarity

The porewater pressure due to

capillarity is negative (suction) and is a
function of the size of the soil pores
and the water content.
At the groundwater level, the
porewater pressure is zero and
decrease as it move up the capillary
zone.
The effective stress increases
because the porewater pressure is
negative.

Capillary
Rise

Vadose zone

Unsaturate
d soil

Saturated
soil
Phreatic
zone

Zone of capillary rise

Ground water table

Shrinking and swelling soil

Some soils will change volume significantly depending upon their
moisture content.
Shrinking and swelling are generally associated with fine-grained
clay soils.

Shrinking soil
Soil shrinkage is generally confined to the upper portions of a soil.
Shrinkage and shrinkage cracks are caused by a reduction in soil
moisture content through:
1. Evaporation from the soil surface in dry climates.
2. Lowering of the groundwater table.
3. Desiccation of soil by trees during temporary dry spells in
otherwise humid climates.
. As moisture content decreases, capillary stress in the void spaces
increases due to the increased surface tension. This increased
surface tension tends to pull adjacent soil particles closer together
resulting in an overall soil volume decrease

Shrinking soil (cont..)

As moisture content continues to decrease, capillary stress
continues to increase, which continues to reduce overall volume.
The point where no further volume reduction occurs but the degree
of moisture saturation is still 100 percent is called the shrinkage
limit (SL), which is an Atterberg limit, just as plasticity index (PI) is
The shrinkage limit is not commonly
tested because of various difficulties.
However, a soil near the shrinkage limit
typically have lower void ratios that can
be achieved by compaction because of
the associated high capillary stress.

Swelling soil
Swelling soils, also known as expansive soils, are ones that swell in
volume when subjected to moisture. These swelling soils typically
contain clay minerals that attract and absorb water.
When water is introduced to expansive soils, the water molecules
are pulled into gaps between the soil plates. As more water is
absorbed, the plates are forced further apart, leading to an
increase in soil pore pressure.
If this increased pressure exceeds surcharge pressure (including
the weight of the overlying pavement) the soil will expand in
volume to a point where these pressures are once again in balance.

Seepage
The flow of water through soil is not in one
direction and not uniform over the entire area.
The flow nets will be used to calculate the ground
water flow.
The concept of the flow net is based on Laplaces
equation of continuity.

Flow nets
Flow net is a graphical representation of a flow field with the combination of
flow line and equipotential line
Flow line flow path of a particle of water from the
upstream to downstream

Equipotential line- line representing constant

head
Flow Channel the soil conduit between two
consecutive flow lines.

Flow nets
The criteria of flow net construction:
1. No two flow lines can intersect
2. No two equipotential lines can intersect
3. Flow lines and equipotential lines must intersect at right angle
4. The ratio of width to length must be same for all cells (except near
the ends of a flow area.
5. The flow and equipotential lines are smooth.

STEP BY STEP TO DRAW FLOW NETS

1. Draw cross-section of structure to scale.
(be sure horizontal and vertical scales are equal)

2. Identify boundary condition

(identify whether the boundary is flow line or equipotential line)

3. Select the number of flow channels

(Usuallay 2 or 3. For more precision is needed, the flow channels can be subdivided to 4 or 6)

4. Sketch the initial flow lines

5. Add equipotential lines

STEP BY STEP TO DRAW FLOW NETS

GEOMETRY AND BOUNDARY

CONDITION

INITIAL ITERATION OF FLOW

NET

STEP BY STEP TO DRAW FLOW NETS

ADJUSTMENT OF FLOW
NET

REFINING FLOW
NET

STEP BY STEP TO DRAW FLOW NETS

FINAL FLOW NET

Example of Flow nets

Example of Flow nets

Example of Flow nets

Example of flow nets

Example of flow nets

Properties of flow net for homogeneous soil

1. The potential drop or drop in total head ht from one equipotential to the next is
the same across any of the equipotential.

ht

ht( beg) ht( end)

Nd

ht
ht( M) ht( beg) nd
Nd
ht( M)

Datum

2. The flow is the same through any of the flow channels.

17 3
17 1.7
14.35m
9

Properties of flow net for homogeneous soil

The hydraulic gradient i in any flow
field is :-

ht
i
l

the flow path across the flow field

The hydraulic gradient varies throughout

the flow net
The hydraulic gradient is inversely
proportional to the length of the flow field.
Because the velocity is linearly related to
the hydraulic gradient (V=ki), the water
velocity increases when the size of the
flow field decreases.

Imagine that you can ride a water molecule

and you have the choice between molecule at
point A and B. Which molecule should you
choose if you wish to win the flow net race?

Calculation associated with flow nets

The flow net whether generated by hand or using numerical method, can
be used to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Determine the rate of seepage, q

Total flow, Q
The water pressure, uw
Uplift force on a buried structure
Exit gradient

25

Calculation associated with flow nets

(1) Rate of Seepage, q
q ki( A) ki(dx1)
ht
q k
(lx1) kht
l

Because the flow field is square, d=l

(2) Total rate of seepage, Q per unit

length N
number of flow channels (number of flow lines minus one)
f
Q kh
Nd number of equipotential drops (number of equipotential lines minus one
head loss from
upstream to
downstream

Calculation associated with flow nets

(3) The pore water pressure, uw
q ki( A) ki(dx1)
ht
q k
(lx1) kht
l

Because the flow field is square, d=l

(2) Total flow, Q per unit length

Nf
Q kh
Nd
head loss from
upstream to
downstream

number of flow channels (number of flow lines minus one)

number of equipotential drops (number of equipotential lines minus one

Flownet in anisotropic soil

Rate of Seepage (q)- Anisotropic soil

Flow net are valid for isotropic soils only. However we can use flow net
by transforming the scale to draw the flow net.

q k x k z h

29

Nf
Nd

number of flow channels (number of flow

lines minus one
.per unit length normal to the plane
number of equipotential drops (number of
equipotential lines minus one

Anisotropy, which is the

opposite of isotropy, is
a term used to denote
preferential flow direction
in soils and other geologic
materials. If soil consisted
of perfectly spherical
grains, flow rates would
be isotropic the same in
all directions, other
factors being equal. Soil
doesnt consist of
perfectly spherical grains,
however

Uplift pressure under hydraulic structures

Lateral and uplift forces due to groundwater flow can adversely affect the
stability of the structures as dam and weirs.
The uplift forces per unit length is found by calculating the porewater pressure
at discrete points along the base and then finding the area under the porewater
pressure distribution diagram.
The Simpsons rule is convenient to calculate the uplift force, Pw.

Pw
u

2
u

4
u

1
n
i
i
3
i 3
i 2
odd
even

30

Uplift pressure under hydraulic structures

Nd =7
Different water level, h = 7m
So, the head loss for each
potential drop is h/Nd = 7/7 =1 m

The uplift pressure at a =

Pressure head at a X w
= [(7+2)-1] w = 8w
The unit force per unit length can
be calculated by finding the area
of the pressure diagram.
31

Piping in Granular Soils

At the downstream, near the dam,
the exit hydraulic gradient

iexit

hL
datum

concrete
dam

32

soil
impervious strata

h = total head drop

Piping in Granular Soils

If iexit exceeds the critical hydraulic gradient (icr), firstly
the soil grains at exit get washed away.
This phenomenon progresses towards the upstream, forming a
free passage of water (pipe).
' Gs 1 w Gs 1
icr

w 1 e w 1 e
h
datum

concrete
dam

no soil; all water

33

soil
impervious strata

Piping in Granular Soils

Piping is a very serious problem. It leads to downstream
flooding which can result in loss of lives.
Therefore, provide adequate safety factor against piping.

icr
Fpiping
iexit
concrete
dam

34

typically 5-6

soil
impervious strata

Piping Through Foundation

Water, through the foundation of dam, may start seeping at a huge rate when
highly permeable cavities or fissures or strata of coarse sand or gravel are
available in the foundation of the dam. This concentrated flow at a high gradient,
may erode the soil.
This leads to increase flow of water and soil, ultimately resulting in a rush of water
and soil, thereby creating hollows below the foundation. The dam may sink down
into hollow so formed, causing its failure.

35

Piping Through the dam body

When the concentrated flow channels get developed in the body of the dam, soil
may be removed in the same manner as was explained in the foundation piping,
leading to the formation of hollows in the dam body, and subsequent subsidence
of the dam.
These flow channels may develop due to faulty construction, insufficient
compaction, cracks developed in embankment due to formation of settlement,
shrinkage cracks, animal burrows etc.

36

Various causes of dam failures

37

Example of piping failures

Exit hole of a soil pipe

38

Filters
Used for:
facilitating drainage
preventing fines from being washed away
Used in:
earth dams

39

retaining walls

Filter Materials:
granular soils

geotextiless

Granular Filter Design

Two major criteria:
(a) Retention Criteria
- to prevent washing out of fines

Filter grains must not be too coarse

(b) Permeability Criteria
- to facilitate drainage and thus avoid
build-up of pore pressures
40

Filter grains must not be too fine

granular filter

Granular Filter Design

Retention criteria:

Permeability criteria:

D15, filter < 5 D85, soil

D15, filter > 4 D15, soil

average filter pore size

- after Terzaghi & Peck (1967)

D15, filter < 20 D15, soil

- after US Navy (1971)

D50, filter < 25 D50, soil

41

GSD Curves for the soil and filter must be parallel

Drainage Provisions in Retaining Walls

weep hole

geosynthetics

42

granular soil
drain pipe

QUICK SAND & LIQUEFACTION

Quicksand is a colloid hydrogel consisting of fine granular material (such as sand or silt,
clay, and water.
Quicksand forms in saturated loose sand when the sand is suddenly agitated. When water in
the sand cannot escape, it creates a liquefied soil that loses strength and cannot support
weight. Quicksand can form in standing water or in upwards flowing water (as from an
artesian spring). In the case of upwards flowing water, seepage forces oppose the force of
gravity and suspend the soil particles.
The saturated sediment may appear quite solid until a sudden change in pressure or shock
initiates liquefaction. This causes the sand to form a suspension and lose strength. The
cushioning of water gives quicksand, and other liquefied sediments, a spongy, fluidlike
texture. Objects in liquefied sand sink to the level at which the weight of the object is equal
to the weight of the displaced soil/water mix and the submerged object floats due to its
buoyancy.
Liquefaction is a special case of quicksand. In this case, sudden earthquake forces
immediately increases the pore pressure of shallow groundwater. The saturated liquefied soil
loses strength, causing buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall over.
43

QUICK SAND & LIQUEFACTION

Example:
The sand beneath the dams shown below has a permeability in every direction of
8 x 10-6 m/s. Compute the seepage loss in cubic meters per day per meter along
the axis of the dam. Calculate also the uplift pressure under the dam and the
sheet pile.
el. 79 m
Scale (m)

30
el. 59 m

el. 55 m

Example:
The sand beneath the dams shown below has a permeability in every direction of 4 x 10 -5
m/s. The head (HL) is 8 m. Compute the seepage loss in cubic meters per day per meter
along the axis of each dam

9.2, 9.2, 15.4, 6.9 m3/day