Do you still remember your first day

in the University Malaysia Sabah?

Memory
Memory as retention of information or experience over time.
It occurs through three important processes of memory:
Encoding
Getting information
into memory
Retrieval
Taking
information
out of storage

Storing
Retaining
information
over time

Memory
Encoding
When you are listening to a lecture, reading a book or talking to with a
friend. Some info gets into memory virtually automatically, whereas
encoding other info require effort (e.g., attention, deep processing,
Elaboration and the use of mental imagery.
Divided attention concentrating on more than one activity at the same
Time.

Sustained attention (vigilance) Ability to maintain attention to a

selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time.

Encoding: Levels of Processing

Elaboration: the formation of a number of different connections around
a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding.

Deep elaborate processing is a powerful way to remember.

Self-reference relating material to your own experience
Imagery: Visualizing material that we want to remember.

Atkinson and Shiffrins Theory of Memory

1. Analyze & interpret the SM
& decide whether to send it to LTM
2. To retrieve info from LTM
To serve as a store keeper

Sensory Memory
Two kinds of SM
Echoic memory - the brief memory of something a person has
just heard. Duration 2 -4 seconds.

Iconic memory - the brief memory of something a person has

just saw. Remember about 4-5 letters, no matter how many
had
been presented. Duration - seconds (eidetic imagery
ability to
access a visual memory over long period).

Short-Term Memory
Maintenance rehearsal - practice of saying some
information to be remembered over and over in ones
head in order to maintain it in short-term memory (STMs
tend to be encoded in auditory form).
Duration of STM - lasts from about 12 to 30 seconds
without rehearsal.

STM is susceptible to interference

(e.g., if counting is interrupted,
have to start over).

Note: George miller (1956) examined the limited capacity of short term
memory in classic paper The magical number seven, plus minus two.
How can we improve STM?
1. Chunking - grouping items into a unit
Minimum number 5, max 9..if more than 9 numbers use chunking
BP 13110114 8 numbers
BP1613110114 - 10 numbers 16 13 11 01 14 - 5 groups
BP190160110114 306 15 numbers 190 160 110 114 306 5 groups

2. Rehearsal - conscious repetition of information

Short term memory as a Working Memory

Most current researches prefer to think STM as a three-part working
memory
1. Visuospatial sketchpad (ingatan kerja-penglihatan ruang)
This component is the visual workspace that allows us to temporarily
hold and manipulate visual images and spatial information.
Example : rearranging the furniture in your home.
2. Central executive (eksekutif pusat)
Work as a supervisor that integrates and manages information from
the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
3. Phonological Rehearsal Loop (gelung fonologi)
Responsible for holding and manipulating material related to speech,
words and numbers.

Working Memory Model Alan Baddeley

Allows us to hold info temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks
Visual and spatial material

coordinates material

Store speech-based info

speech, words, numbers

Long-Term Memory
The system of memory into which all the information is placed
to be kept more or less permanently.
Elaborative rehearsal - a method of transferring information
from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in
some way.
Formation of LTMs
Engram - the physical change that takes place in the brain
when a memory is formed.
Consolidation - the changes that take place in the structure
and functioning of neurons when an engram is formed.
Hippocampus area of brain responsible for the formation of
LTMs.

Storage: Long-Term Memory

Memory with
conscious recall

Personal
experiences
First day at
UMS

General
knowledge
12 months in
a year

Memory without
conscious recall

driving Process by which earlier Prejudice,

encounter with a stimulus phobia
increases the likelihood
of that stimulus (or related
one) being remembered at
later time

Memory: Brain Structures

The process of accessing memory model

Retrieveal the memory process that occurs when information that
was retained in memory comes out of storage.
Retrieve a memory using a specific cues
1. Recall memory (mengingati semula)
Process of using a very general retrieval cue to search the contents of
LTM. E.g., Name the father of psychology ? , essay test
2. Recognition Task (identify)
Contrast to recall task only require the subject to recognize the
target when it is presented. Process of matching a specific retrieval
cue to an appropriate item in LTM. Typical examples multiplechoice tests, true false and matching test question.
3. Cued recall (Combining elements of both recall and recognition).
Recall something by using a cue, or prompt, provided by an
experimenter or other individual.

4. Serial Call
Giving the subjects a list of stimulus to remember and then
requiring them to recall the stimuli in the exact order they were
presented.
36

33

30

27

24

21

18

15

12

5. Paired-associates recall
Task involve presenting the subject with a list of paired associates,
or word pairs and then cueing their recall with one of the words
from the pair.
Exp: Wilhelm Wundt- experimental
William James-Functionalism
Watson-Behaviorism
Titchener- Structuralism

Why do we forget ????

1. Serial position effect
The phenomenon of remembering the material at the beginning
(primacy effect) and the end of a list better (recency effect) than the
material in the middle.

Table, Cloud, book, tree, shirt, cat, light, bench, chalk

(primacy effect)

(2nd greatest recall)

middle

(recency effect)

(least recall)

(greatest recall)

Note : Try not to be in the middle for job

interviews. Going first or last in the interview
process is much likely to make a persons
interview more memorable.

2. Spacing of practice
a. Distributed learning (Pembelajaran menyebar)
A learning technique in which practice sessions are interspersed.
b. Massed learning (Pembelajaran berkelompok)
Crammed together all at once.
3. Rehearsal also affect the effectiveness of your memory.
Maintenance Rehearsal the process of repeating the contents
of short term memory over and over to maintain it in STM
4. Chunking The process of grouping information into unit to
Store more information in STM.

1. Chunking (pengetulan)

Cth :

NOITACING (9 ITEM)
NOITACINGYLOCHOPSYC
PSYCHOLOGY

IN

ACTION

10010001000010101011000
100

1000 10000101

010

11000

Chunking bits of information are combined into meaningful units,

or chunks, so that more information can be held in STM.

Retrieveal of emotional memories

Automatic encoding - tendency of certain kinds of
information to enter long-term memory with little or
no effortful encoding.
Flashbulb memories - type of automatic encoding
that occurs because an unexpected event has
strong emotional associations for the person
remembering it.

Four Theories of Forgetting

Decay Theory
(Teori reputan)

Memory deteriorates as time passes; extremely

difficult to prove experimentally; examples;
degrading of skills and memories if they are
not used for a long period of time.

Retrieval Failure
Theory
(Teori Kegagalan
Mendapatkan
Kembali)

A memory stored in LTM is never really

forgotten, it is just momentarily inaccessible
due to interference, faulty cues, or emotional
states;
Examples; forget information during an exam
or conversation, only remember it later.

Motivated Forgetting Theory Caused by an unconscious wish to

(Teori Lupaan Bermotivasi) forget something unpleasant;
Example; forgetting name of
instructor who gave you a low
grade.
Interference theory
(Teori Gangguan)

Forgetting is caused by one

memory competing with or
replacing another, particularly for
similar events or when similar
retrieval cues are involved.

Forgetting: Interference

First learn

Then learn

Proactive interference
PT10103 (Developmental Psychology is forgotten)

PT10403

Retroactive interference
(Psychology is forgotten)
1. Proactive interference
Forgetting in which old info interferes with new info (example; PT10103 interferes
with remembering PT10403).
PT10103 (old) ------ PT10403 (new)--- mid exam PT10403 (forgotten because of
PT10103).
2. Retroactive interference
Forgetting in which new info interferes with old info (example; PT10403 interferes
with remembering PT10103).
PT10403 (old)-----

PT10103 (new)--- mid exam PT10403 (forgotten because of

PT10103)

What happen if people couldnt forget ?

Case A.R Lurias (1968) famous mnemonist unable to
forget.
He invented a way to forget things by writing them on the
piece of paper and then burning the paper.

One of the best way to improve retrieval is to create the original

learning conditions.
This is known as the encoding specificity principle.
- Retrieval of info is improved when conditions of recovery are
similar to the conditions when info was encoded.
1. Context and retrieval
You do better on test when you take it in the same seat and
classroom where you originally studied the material.
2. Mood congruence (persamaan mood)
People remember something better if their emotional states are the
same at the time when they learn something and during the time
when they try to retrieve it (when sad, you think of same things as
when you were last sad).

3. State-dependent retrieval (Ingatan peringkat bergantungan)

What you learn in one state of awareness may be harder to recall
when you are in a different state.
Example : Studying with a cup of coffee and taking exam right
after drinking coffee may improve retrieval; HOWEVER, does
not apply to alcohol, which impairs memory.

Memory impairments
Susan:
Retrograde
amnesia

Possible cause; car accident or been in a fight in

which she experienced a blow to her head
Impairment; difficulty to remember previously learned
info. Lost memory for events that occurred BEFORE
accident, but has no trouble remembering things that
have happened since then.
Duration : Usually temporary

Claire :
Possible cause; brain surgery, or she may be suffering
Anterograde from chronic alcoholism
Amnesia
Impairment: Claires ability to form new memories
has been damaged. Since her surgery or the onset of
amnesia, she has not been able to learn anything new.
Inability to form new long-term memories (senile
dementia).
Duration : usually permanent

Memory impairments
Alzheimers

Possible cause: genetics plays a part, either in

causing the disease or in making a person more
susceptible to environmental triggers for the disease.
Autopsy results show that the brain develops tangles
composed of cell bodies, and plaques composed of
degenerating axons and dendrites in the temporal and
parietal lobes of brain.
Impairment; Alzheimers disease is a progressive
mental deterioration that occurs most commonly in
old age, and is characterized by severe memory loss.
Duration : Irreversible (cannot be changed back to
what it was before) and fatal (causing or ending in
death).

Amnesia

Infantile amnesia - the inability to recall events that

happened
during early development of the brain (before age 3).
Autobiographical memory - the memory for events and facts
related to ones personal life story (usually after age 3).

Mnemonic device
A memory improvement technique based on encoding items in a
Special way.
Method of Loci
Imagine each item to be remembered
attached to places inside a building or in
(physical places)
some logical sequential placement.
Peg-word
(holding thing
together, hanging
things on &
marking a position.
Word association

Imagine a set of up to 10 visual images

pegged to a marker, such as one-bun, twoshoe, three-tree, four-door, five-hive, sixbricks..ten-pen.
Create verbal associations for items to be
learned.(using first letter)
HOMES (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie &
Superior).

Memory and brain anatomy

Amygdala

Emotional memory (anger and aggression)

and consolidation

Basal ganglia and

cerebellum

Creation and storage of non declarative

memory (motor skills, priming)

Hippocampal
formation

Memory recognition, explicit, spatial,

episodic memory, consolidation of
declarative memory (general knowledge
& personal experience).

Thalamus

Formation of new memories; location of

working memory (STM)

Cortical areas (motor,

parahippocampal,
prefrontal cortex and
parts of the occipital
and temporal lobes)

Encoding of declarative memory, storage

of episodic and semantic memory, skill
learning, priming

Conclusion
The brain needs exercise to stay fit just as muscles
do. Research
has shown that people who regularly work
crossword puzzles,
take classes, read and stay mentally active are less
likely
to develop senile dementia than those who fail to
use their
minds.