Ece414 Chapter3 w12

Chapter 3
Bandpass Transmission Techniques

for Wireless Communication
ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012
Outline
Introduction to Digital Communications
Signal (Vector) Space Representations
Digital Modulation Schemes (M-ASK, M-PSK, M-FSK)
Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes
- Bandwidth (spectral) efficiency
- Power efficiency
- Temporal characteristics (e.g., dynamic power range, peak/average ratio)
Power Spectral Density of Digital Modulation Schemes
Error Rate Performance of Digital Modulation Schemes
Comparison of Digital Modulation Schemes in terms of Spectral
Efficiency and Power Efficiency
Temporally Efficient Digital Modulation Schemes
Block Diagram for a Digital Communication System

Original
message signal
(analog)
A/D
Source
Encoder
Channel
Encoder
Modulator
Channel
Recovered
message
signal
(analog)
D/A
Source
Decoder
Channel
Decoder
Demodulator
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion: Analog (i.e., continuous-time

continuous-amplitude) message signal is converted into a discrete-time discreteamplitude digital signals by time-sampling and amplitude-quantization. The
resulting signals are then mapped to binary sequences.
Block Diagram for a Digital Communication System (contd)

Source Encoding: Removes the redundant information embedded in the
message signal, therefore represents the message with as few binary digits as
possible, i.e., data compression
Channel Encoding: Introduces redundancy in a controlled manner which
can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise, interference and fading.
Provides noise immunity to transmitted information.
Source coding and channel coding will not be studied in this course
Modulation: Converts (maps) codewords to high-frequency analog waveforms.
A certain parameter of the carrier signal (i.e., modulated signal) is varied in
accordance with message signal (i.e. modulating signal) e.g. amplitude shift keying
(ASK), phase shift keying (PSK), frequency shift keying (FSK)
Receiver Blocks: Perform the inverse of the transmitter operations in order to
recover the original analog message (continuous-time continuous-amplitude) signal.
In a practical digital communication receiver, there are also additional sub-blocks
such as channel estimation, synchronization (frame/frequency/phase),
authentications, crypto, multiplexing, etc.
Why is Modulation Required?

Modulatio shifts the baseband signal to a higher frequency band, centered at the
so-called carrier frequency.
To achieve easy radiation: Dimensions of the transmit/receive antennas are
limited by the corresponding wavelength. The frequency conversion allows the
use of practical antenna lengths.
To accommodate for simultaneous transmission of several baseband
signals: Simultaneous transmission of different baseband signals which are
possibly overlapping can be facilitated by assigning slightly different frequency
carriers for each one.
Large bandwidths require high carrier frequencies: Practical requirements
in front-end filter design dictates the bandwidth-to-frequency carrier ratio (i.e.,
fractional bandwidth) be kept within a certain range.
B
0.01 0.1
fc
B
: Fractional bandwidth
fc
Why is Modulation Required? (contd)

High-rate transmission requires larger bandwidths (therefore, higher
carrier frequencies): According to Shannon Theorem, channel capacity is
defined as the maximum achievable information rate that can be transmitted
over the channel. For the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel,
C B log 2 1 SNR
Channel capacity
Bandwidth
Signal-to-noise ratio
To (possibly) expand the bandwidth of the transmitted signal for

better transmission quality: When the bandwidth increases, the required
SNR (for fixed noise level, corresponding signal power) to achieve a specific
transmission rate decreases
C
B
C B log 2 1 SNR SNR 2 1
Signal-Space Representations
Consider a modulation format where the transmitted signal waveforms belong to
the modulation set sm t mM1 0 t Ts .
Each of the waveform can be represented as a point (vector) in an N-dimensional
signal space (sometimes called as vector space) defined by the orthonormal basis
N
functions n t n1 N M
Ts
0 i
t *j t dt i j
Ts
s m, n s m t
0
n*
t dt s t sm,nn t
n 1
sm t s m sm,1 , sm, 2 ,..., sm, N

The Gram-Schmidt procedure (See Appendix A of the textbook) provides a
systematic approach to construct the set of orthonormal functions, which span the
signal space.
Signal-Space Representations (contd)

sm t sm sm,1 , sm, 2 ,..., sm, N
Energy
Es
Ts
2
sm
0
t dt sm2 ,n sm
sk t sk sk ,1 , sk , 2 ,..., sk , N
sl t sl sl ,1 , sl , 2 ,..., sl , N
Correlation
Euclidean
Distance
n1
k , l m 1,2,...M
1
sk t , sl t
Ts
d sk t , sl t
2
Ts
s t s t
k
Ts
dt sk, sl sk sl sk,ns*l,n
n1
sk t sl t dt d sk, sl sk,n sl,n

2
n1
M-ary Amplitude Shift Keying (M-ASK)

Am 2m 1 M , m 1,2...M
sm t Am cos 2f ct
0 t Ts
Baseband (Equivalent Lowpass) Representation
sm t Am cos 2f ct Re Am e j 2fct sm,lp t Am

Basis Function(s) (Obtained through Gram-Schmidt procedure)
2 Ts cos 2f ct , 0 t Ts
0,
otherwise
Signal-Space (Vector Space) Representation (Obtained through the use of

basis functions)
sm t sm Am Ts 2
1-dimensional
Ts
Signal Energy Esm sm2 t dt Am2 Ts 2

0
M-ASK (contd)
Examples of M-ASK
Signal Constellations
M=4
Bandpass Modulation Signal
11 10 00 01
Equivalent Lowpass Signal
10
M-ary Phase Shift Keying (M-PSK)

m 2 m 1 M , m 1,2...M
sm t A cos 2f ct m
0 t Ts
sm t A cos 2f ct m Re Ae j m e j 2fct sm,lp t Ae j m

Basis Functions
1 t
0,
otherwise
2 Ts sin 2f ct , 0 t Ts
2 t
0,
otherwise
Signal-Space Representation
sm t s m A Ts 2 cos m , A Ts 2 sin m
2-dimensional
Ts
Signal Energy Esm Es sm2 t dt A2Ts 2

0
11
Example: Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

1 s1 t A cos 2f ct
0 s2 t A cos 2f ct
Bandpass Modulation Signal
2 t
Es
Es
1 t
-A
Equivalent Lowpass Signal
s1 Es ,0
s 2 Es ,0
t
-A
12
Example: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

s1 Es ,0
00 s1 t A cos 2f ct
01 s2 t A cos 2f c t 2
10 s3 t A cos 2f c t
s 2 0, Es
s 3 Es ,0
s 4 0, Es
11 s4 t A cos 2f c t 3 2
2 t
Signal-Space
Representation
Es
Es
Es
1 t
Es
13
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

sm t Am,r cos 2f ct Am,i sin 2f c t
m 1,2,...M
0 t Ts
Am,r, Am,i: Information-bearing signal amplitudes of the quadrature carriers

Alternatively, QAM can be considered as a combination of ASK and PSK.
sm t Am cos 2f ct m where
Am Am2 ,r Am2 ,i
m 1,2,...M
0 t Ts
m arctg Am,i Am,r
Examples of QAM
Signal Constellations
14
QAM (contd)
sm t Am,r cos 2f ct Am,i sin 2f ct Re Am,r jAm,i e j 2fct
sm,lp t Am,r jAm,i Am e jarctg m

Basis Functions
1 t
0,
otherwise
2 t
0,
otherwise
sm t s m Am,r Ts 2 , Am,i Ts 2
2-dimensional
Signal Energy
Ts
E sm sm2 t dt Am2 ,r Am2 ,i Ts 2

0
15
M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (M-FSK)

f m mf , m 1,2...M
sm t A cos 2 f c f m t
0 t Ts
sm t A cos 2 f c f m t Re Ae j 2f mt e j 2fct sm,lp t Ae j 2f mt

Cross Correlation
k ,l
1 Ts j 2 k l ft
sin T k l f jT k l f
e
dt
e
Ts 0
T k l f
k ,l
sin 2T k l f
2T k l f
For f 1 2T and k l
k ,l 0
Therefore, the minimum frequency separation between adjacent signals for

orthogonality of the M signals is f 1 2T
16
M-FSK (contd)
Assuming frequency separation f 1 2T, the signal-space representation
for the M-FSK signals are given as N-dimensional vectors, where N=M.
2 Ts cos 2 f c f m t , 0 t Ts
m t
0,
otherwise
s1 t s1 Es
0 0 ...... 0
s2 t s 2 0
Es
0 ...... 0
.
.
.
sM t s M 0 0 0 ......
Es
Ts
2
2
where Esm Es sm t dt A Ts 2
0
17
Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes

Bandwidth (spectral) efficiency: How much bandwidth is needed for a
given data rate?
s : Bandwidth efficiency
Rs log 2 M Ts
Bits/sec/Hz
s
Rs : Data rate W : Bandwidth

W
W
The bandwidth depends on the modulation scheme and pulse shaping. Power
spectral density (PSD) is typically used to determine the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal. There are various definitions for bandwidth:
Main lobe (null-to-null) bandwidth: The width of the main spectral lobe.
Fractional power-containment bandwidth: The frequency interval that
contains (1-) of the total signal power, e.g. 99.9% of the total power.
Bounded PSD bandwidth: The frequency interval where the PSD stays
above a prescribed certain threshold, e.g. sidelobes peaks 40 dB below its
maximum value
Roughly speaking, bandwidth of the modulation scheme is proportional to
the dimension number.
18
Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes (contd)

Power efficiency: How much power is needed for reliable transmission with a
specified fidelity?
The fidelity for a digital communication system is usually measured in terms of
symbol- or bit-error probability. For a given SNR, we aim to achieve a low error
probability (how low? it depends on the application).
Symbol error probability (SEP) is in general easier to evaluate. Bit error
probability (BEP) depends on the mapping of source bits onto modulation signals.
A bound on BEP is given as
P e
Pb e P e
log 2 M
Two common mapping forms are natural mapping and Gray mapping.
In Gray mapping, the neighbour points differ in only one digit. It should be
noted that Gray mapping is not possible for every signal constellation.
19
Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes (contd)

Temporal efficiency: How wide are the time variations of the transmitted signal?
Temporal efficiency=Peak power/Average power
The choice of amplifier depends on the temporal characteristics of the signal.
Other considerations:
Hardware/software implementation complexity & cost of implementation
Sensitivity to interference
Robustness to impairments encountered in a wireless channel
In most practical scenarios, these performance measures conflict with each
other. The communication system designer should be able to find the best tradeoff for a given application under specific constraints.
20
Comparison of Spectral Efficiency of Modulation Schemes

M-PSK and QAM
M-FSK
log 2 M
bits/sec
Data rate
T
Data rate
2
BW null to null Hz
T
Hz
BW roughly
Data rate 1
s
log 2 M bits/sec/Hz
BW
2
log 2 M
bits/sec
T
2T
Data rate 2 log 2 M
bits/sec/Hz
BW
M
M: Modulation order, Constellation size

21
Power Spectral Density (PSD)

In practical, pulse shaping should be considered for a precise bandwidth
measurement and considered in the spectral efficiency calculations.
Power spectral density (PSD) describes the distribution of signal power in
the frequency domain. If the baseband equivalent of the transmitted signal
sequence is given as
ak : Baseband modulation symbol
g t ak p t kTs
k
Ts : Signal interval
p t : Pulse shape
then the PSD of g(t) is given as

g f
1
2
P f a f
Ts
where
See Ch.4 of Digital Communications

by Proakis for the proof
P f F p t
a f Ra n e j 2fnTs
1 n *
Ra n E akakn
2
22
Example: PSD of BPSK with Rectangle Pulse Shaping

Baseband equivalent of BPSK sequence
g t ak p t kTs
ak A
Independent data symbols are assumed
Autocorrelation of data sequence

Ra n E
ak ak* n
E ak2 ,
E ak E ak* n
n0
A2 , n 0
, n 0 0, n 0
a f F Ra n Ra n e j 2fnTs A2
n
Pulse shaping
t Ts / 2
j 2 f Ts 2
FT
p t
P f Tssinc fTs e
Ts
p(t)
T/2
P f Tssinc fTs
23
Example: PSD of BPSK with Rectangle Pulse Shaping (contd)

PSD of baseband BPSK sequence
g f
P f
Ts
a f A2Tssinc 2 fTs
24
Example: PSD of BPSK with Rectangle Pulse Shaping (contd)

Bandpass BPSK sequence and its Fourier transform (spectral density)
1
S f G f f c G * f f c See
s t Re g t e j 2fct FT
2
Tutorial 1
PSD of bandpass BPSK sequence
1
See Ch.4 of Digital Communications
g f f c *g f f c
4
by Proakis for the proof
1
1
A2Ts sinc 2 f f c Ts A2Ts sinc 2 f f c Ts
4
4
s f
Null-to-null bandwidth
25
Example: PSD of QAM with Rectangle Pulse Shaping

Baseband equivalent of QAM sequence
g t ak jbk p t kTs
k
ak , bk A,3 A
Autocorrelation of data sequence

Ra n E ak jbk ak n jbk n
E ak jbk 2 ,
10 A2 , n 0
n0
E ak jbk ak n jbk n , n 0
0,
n0
PSD of baseband QAM sequence
Note that PSD of QAM has the

same general form as BPSK.
g f 10 A2Tsinc 2 fT
PSD of bandpass QAM sequence
10 2
10 2
2
s f A Ts sinc f f c Ts A Ts sinc 2 f f c Ts
4
26
Some Practical Pulse Shapes

Below are some pulse shapes commonly used in communication systems:
Half-Sinusoid Pulse
t
, 0t T
T
p t A sin
AT jfT
1
1
P f
e
sinc fT - 2 sinc fT 2
2
Full-Cosine Pulse
p t
A
t
1
cos
0t T
2
T
AT jfT
2sinc fT sinc fT 1 sinc fT 1

P f
e
4
27
Some Practical Pulse Shapes (contd)

Gaussian Pulse
2 2
T
p t A exp
B t
ln
2
2

ln 2 f 2
A jfT ln 2
P f e
exp
T
2
2 B
where B is defined as the 3dB bandwidth of pulse

Raised Cosine Pulse
sin t T cos t T
pt
2 2
2
t T
1 4 t T
0 1
0 f
T,
T
1
T
1
cos
f
2
T
P f
0,
: Roll-off factor
1
2T
1
1
,
2T
2T
1
f
2T
28
Comparison of Pulse Shapes

Time-Domain
Square
Full-cosine
Half-sinusoid
Gaussian
29
Comparison of Pulse Shapes (contd)

Frequency-Domain
Full-cosine
Half-sinusoid
Gaussian
Square
Square
BW=2/T
Half-sinusoid
BW=3/T
Full-cosine
BW=4/T
2/T
3/T
4/T
30
Comparison of Pulse Shapes (contd)

Raised Cosine
0 1
: Roll-off factor
BW
1
T
1
2
BW
T
T
1/T
2/T
31
Optimum Receiver for AWGN

For a given SNR (i.e. a given signal power for fixed noise power), we aim to
achieve a low error probability. To calculate error probability, first we need to
identify the receiver structure.
The receiver consists of a demodulator and a detector:
The demodulator converts the received waveform r(t) into a N dimensional
vector r r1 , r2 ,...rN where N is the dimension of the signal-space for the
given modulation type.
The detector decides which of the possible M signal waveforms was
transmitted based on r, where M is the constellation size.
sm t
r t
n t
Demodulator
Detector
sm
r t sm t n t r s m n
32
Optimum Receiver for AWGN (contd)
Correlation-type demodulator
Matched-filter demodulator
For details, see Proakis Digital Communications Chapter 5
33

We want to design a signal detector that makes a decision based on the
observation of the vector r such that the probability of a correct decision is
maximized. The optimal decision rule is based on the maximization of so-called
a posteriori probabilities
p s m r : The probability of choosing sm m=1,2M based on the observation of r
This decision criterion is called the Maximum A Posteriori Probability (MAP) rule.
max p s m r
m1, 2...M
max
m1, 2...M
p r s m p s m
p r
max p r s m p s m
m1, 2...M
max p r s m
Bayes Theorem
p r : Common for all
p s m 1 M, i.e. Equally probable
messages
m1, 2...M
The conditional pdf p r s m is called the likelihood function and the decision
criterion based on the maximization of p r s m over the M signals is called the
maximum likelihood (ML) criterion.
34

r sm n
For an AWGN channel, the components of the noise vector n are zeromean Gaussian random variables with variance N0/2
nk2
f nk
exp 2
2
2
2
1
2 N0 2
nk2
1
exp
N 0
N0
k 1,2...N
The received signal will have a Gaussian conditional distribution

p r s m p rk sm,k f rk sm,k
N
k 1
k 1
1
1
2
rk sm,k
exp
k 1 N 0
N0
1
1 N
2
exp
rk sm,k
N 2
N 0
N 0 k 1
35

The ML rule is then given as
max p r s m min rk sm,k 2 min r s m
N
m k 1
Distance metrics
The ML receiver decides in favor of the signal which is closest in Euclidean

distance to the received vector, r.
Expanding the decision rule,
min r s m
min r 2 r s m s m
m
where Em s m is the signal energy. Neglecting terms which do not affect

the decision and under the assumption that constant-energy modulation set
(e.g. PSK) is used
min r s m
m
max r s m
m
Correlation metrics
36
Example: Error Probability for BPSK

b 0 s1 t A cos 2f ct 1 where 1 0
b 1 s2 t A cos 2f c t 2 where 2
s1 t A cos 2f ct 2 E T cos 2f c t
s2 t s1 t
s2 t A cos 2f ct 2 E T cos 2f ct
i.e. antipodal signaling
Unlike other M-PSK for M>2, we can represent this special form of BPSK
signal as 1-dimensional signal. The basis function is given as
2 T cos 2f c t , 0 t T
1 t
0,
otherwise
Therefore, the optimal receiver has the following form of

r t
.dt
1 t
Euclidean
Distance
Decoder
37
Example: Error Probability for BPSK (contd)

Assume s1(t) is sent. Under the assumption of AWGN, the received signal
r t s1 t w t
The output of demodulator
T
r t 1 t dt s1 t w t 1 t dt E n
where
def T
n w t 1 t dt ~ N 0, N 0 2
0
Assume s2(t) is sent. The output of demodulator is now

T
r t 1 t dt E n
38
Example: Error Probability for BPSK

Decision regions
b 1
b 0
b0 E
b 1 E
r 0
1
Here we have two possible alternatives, therefore we can use a zero threshold
detector as an optimal detector.
Let P(e) denote the error probability
P e P b 0, b 1 P b 1, b 0
P b 0 b 1 P b 1 P b 1b 0 P b 0
Bayes Theorem
P b 0 P b 1 1 / 2
P b 0 b 1 P b 1b 0
P e P b 0 b 1
Equally probable messages

Due to symmetry
Under the assumption that b=1 is sent r E z
P b 0 b 1 P r 0 b 1 f r b 1dr
39
Example: Error Probability for BPSK (contd)
P b 0 b 1 f r b 1dr
0
r E
1
dr
exp
N 0 0
N 0
y2
1
exp dy
2 2 E N0
2
r E
N0 2
2E
N0
1 y2 2
dy
where Q-function is defined as Q x
e
2 x
40
Example: Error Probability for QPSK

00 s1 t A cos 2f c t
01 s2 t A cos 2f ct 2
10 s3 t A cos 2f c t 3 2
11 s4 t A cos 2f c t 2
1 t
0,
otherwise
2 t
0,
otherwise
.dt
r t
1 t
Detector
s min r sm
m 1, 2,3, 4
.dt
2 t
41
Example: Error Probability for QPSK (contd)

Under the assumption of AWGN (which exhibits symmetry), rotating and
moving the signal constellation does not change the error probability. Therefore,
we can rotate/move our signal constellation in such a way that the resulting
constellation allows easy mathematical derivation.
Here, we move our constellation as the target signal is located on the origin.
If there is no symmetry in the signal constellation, this should be repeated for
each signal.
Decision
regions
First, we calculate P(c), i.e. the probability of making a correct decision. Then,
probability of error is simply found as P(e)=1-P(c).
42

Assume that the signal located at the origin has been transmitted. If the
received signal is in the shaded area, this means we will make a correct
decision.
def T
d 2 Es
nI w t 1 t dt ~ N 0, N 0 2
d 2
d
0
def T
nQ w t 2 t dt ~ N 0, N 0 2
d 2
P c s1 P nI d 2, nQ d 2
P nI d 2 P nQ d 2
Es
Q
N0
1 Q
Es

N0
P n Q
n ~ N , 2
2
Q 1 Q
43

Due to symmetry,
P c P c s1 P c s2 P c s3 P c s4
Es
Q
N0
P e 1 P c 2Q
2Q
2 Eb
Q
N0
Es

N0
Es 2 Eb
2 Eb

N0
44
Example: Error Probability for BFSK

1
0 s1 t A cos 2 f c
t
2T
1 s2 t A cos 2 f c t
T
.dt
r t
1 t
Detector
s min r sm
m 1, 2,3, 4
.dt
2 t
2 Ts cos 2 f c 1 2T t , 0 t Ts
1 t
0,
otherwise
2 Ts cos 2 f c 1 T t , 0 t Ts
2 t
0,
otherwise
45
Example: Error Probability for BFSK (contd)

2 t
d 2 Es
Es
By rotation, it can be easily shown that
Es
P e Q
1 t
Es
N0
Now, we will study the same problem without rotation:
Assume s1 t s1 Es ,0 was sent. The received signal is r
Decision is based on min r s m

m
Es nI , nQ
max r s m
m
P e s1 P r s 2 r s1 P nQ nI Es P n Es Q
nQ , nI ~ N 0, N 0 2
def
Es
N0
n nQ nI ~ N 0, N 0
Due to symmetry, P e P e s1 Q
Es
N0
46
A Union Bound on Error Probability

In most cases, probability of error can not be obtained in closed form.
Therefore, one needs to find some bounds or approximations which can work for
any signal constellation.
We have already shown that the optimal decoder for any signal constellation
2
over AWGN is given by the Euclidean distance decoder, i.e. d m r s m
1 M
P e P e s m P s m
P e s m
M m1
m1
M
P e s m P dl d m s m
l 1
l m
P d l d m s m
l 1
l l
P s m sl s m
P e s m : Probability of making a
decision error when sm was sent
Union Bound (U-B)
P Ai P Ai
i
i
P s m s l : The probability of choosing sl
instead of the originally transmitted sm
l 1
l l
47
A Union Bound on Error Probability (contd)

M
d l ,m
P e s m P s m s l s m Q
l 1
l 1
l m
l m
U-B: Union Bound
where d l ,m s l s m
N
2 0
2
d l ,m
Q
2N0
l 1
U B M
l m
UB-B: UnionBhattacharyya Bound
UB B M
Q x e
x2 / 2
dl2,m
4 N0
l 1
l m
Assuming equal-probable message signals, the probability of error is

1 M
1 M M d l ,m
P e
P e s m
Q
M m1
M m1 l 1 2 N 0
l m
48
A Union Bound on Error Probability (contd)

The U-B requires the computation of all distances dl,m among signals in
the constellation. A looser bound can be obtained as follows
d l ,m
d
M 1 Q min
2N0
2N0
U B M
P e s m Q
l 1
l m
Minimum Euclidean
distance bound
where d min min d l ,m is the minimum Euclidean distance of the constellation.

l ,m
Then the probability of error is found as

1 M
1 M M d l ,m M 1 Q d min
P e
P e s m
Q
2N
0
M m1
M m1 l 1 2 N 0
l m
P(e) is dominated by the minimum Euclidean distance of the signal
constellation.
49
An Approximation for Error Probability

As an alternative, we can also the following approximate upper bound
Approximate upper bound
P e s m
d l ,m ~
d min
Q
N dmin,m Q
2N0
2N0
l 1
l m
U B M
N dmin,m : Number of signals at distance dmin from sm

d min
1 M
1 M
~
P e
N dmin,m Q
P e s m
M m1
M m1
2N0
d min
N d min Q
2N0
N dmin
1 M
N d ,m
M m1 min
50
Error Probability for M-PSK

2
4 Eb log 2 M sin
M
M
2
d min
4 Es sin 2
Es
N dmin
1, M 2
2, M 2
2
Replacing d min and N dmin into the formula on p.50, we obtain
2 Eb
N0
P e
2Q
M 2
2 Eb
2
log 2 M sin
, M 2
N0
M
51
Error Probability for M-PSK (contd)
Error rate degrades as M increases.

Recall that spectral efficiency increases as M increases.
52
Error Probability for QAM

sm t Am,r cos 2f ct Am,i sin 2f c t sm Am,r Ts 2 , Am,i Ts 2
Am,r , Am,i A,3 A
Es0 Es3 Es12 Es15 9 A2Ts
s0
s1
s2
s3
Es5 Es6 Es9 Es10 A2Ts
s4
s5
s6
s7
Es1 Es2 Es4 Es8
s8
s9
s10
s11
s12
s13
s14
s15
Es7 Es11 Es13 Es14 5 A2Ts

Esavg
d min
d min 2 A Ts 2
2
Esavg
5
Es 4 Eb
1 M
2
Esm 5 A Ts
M m1
8
Ebavg
5
53
Error Probability for QAM (contd)

3 neighbours
2 neighbours
s0 , s3 , s12 , s15
4 neighbours
s0
s1
s2
s3
2 neighbours
s4
s5
s6
s7
3 neighbours
s8
s9
s10
s11
s12
s13
s14
s15
3 neighbours
s1 , s2 , s4 , s8 , s13 , s14 , s7 , s11
4 neighbours
s5 , s6 , s9 , s10
N d min
1 M
N d min,m 3
M m1
Using the result from p.50, we obtain an approximate upper bound
d min
~
3Q
P e N dmin Q
2N0
4 Ebavg
5 N0
54
Error Probability for QAM (contd)
Power efficiency decreases with increasing M, but not early as fast as MPSK.
Recall that spectral efficiency increases as M increases.
55
Error Probability for M-FSK

sm t A cos 2 f c f m t
f m m 2T , m 1,2...M
0 t Ts
Each signal occupies its own

dimension. Therefore, each
signal has M-1neighbours,
separated from each other by
d min 2 Es
P e M 1 Q
Es
M 1 Q
N0
Eb log 2 M
N0
56
Error Probability for M-FSK (contd)

BPSK
2 Eb
N0
P e Q
BFSK
P e Q
Eb
N0
As M increases, power efficiency improves (i.e. less Eb is required).

Recall that spectral efficiency decreases as M increases.
For M=2, BFSK requires 3dB more energy/bit to achieve the same P(e) as BPSK.
In other words, BPSK is 3dB more power efficient that BFSK.
57
Comparison of Power Efficiency of Modulation Schemes

We will use BPSK/QPSK as a benchmark with which to compare the
power efficiency of other modulation schemes.
2
BPSK/QPSK has d min
4 Eb . Now, define the power efficiency of a
modulation scheme (relative to BPSK/QPSK) as
2
d min
P 10 log10
4 Eb
58
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

So far, we assumed that coherent demodulation is performed, i.e. that the
carrier phase is perfectly known at the receiver. This normally requires carrier
phase estimation.
An alternative is differentially encoding, where the data is encoded in
phase difference from one symbol to the next. Assuming binary signalling,
d k 0,1 bk 1,1 ak a k 1bk
dk
bk
+1
-1
-1
-1
+1
-1
+1
-1
+1
-1
-1
+1
ak
+1
This diagram might

correspond to either
PSK or DPSK!
59
Transmitter and Receiver for DPSK

d k 0,1
Mapper
bk 1
Differential ak 1
Encoder
s DPSK t
A cos c t
represents any mismatch between transmitter/receiver oscillators or phase

introduced by the channel. In our system model, (independent of where it comes
from) we included in the transmitter block.
In coherent systems, we need to estimate and compensate this phase error at
the receiver. Here, we simply ignore it!
yI t
dt
r t
t kT
2 cos c t
yQ t
2 sin c t
dt
yk
1 Symbol
Delay
zk
sgn Re .
y k* 1
60
Error Probability of DPSK

s t Aak cos ct
k 1T t kT
y t y I t jyQ t
ak Ae j N t
y k y t dt Ae j ak dt N t dt ATe j a k N k
T
def
N k ~ N 0,2 N 0T
def
Defining 1 y k y k 1 2 2 y k y k 1 2 the decision variable

can be written as

2 2
P e P bk 1bk 1 P Re y k y k* 1 0 bk 1 P 1 2 bk 1
z k sgn Re y k y k* 1 1 2
61
Error Probability of DPSK (contd)

We need to find statistical properties of 1 and 2 :
First, we recall the definitions
def
def
1 y k y k 1 2 2 y k y k 1 2
1 ATe j ak ak 1 / 2 N k N k 1 2
2 ATe j ak ak 1 / 2 N k N k 1 2
E 1 ATe j ak ak 1 / 2
E 2 ATe j ak ak 1 / 2
Var E
E 14 N N
1
E E N N
4
Var 1 E 1 E 1
2
k 1
N k N k 1 * N 0T
N
k 1
k
k 1 N 0T
62

Encoding scheme: ak ak 1bk
ak ak 1 2
ak ak 1 2
+1
bk
+1
+1
-1
+1
-1
-1
-1
-1
+1
-1
+1
-1
-1
ak
a k 1
+1
Under the assumption that bk 1 is sent

E 1 0
1R , 1I ~ N 0, 2
Var 1 N 0T
1 1R j1I
Complex Gaussian
E 2 ATe j
2
2 R ~ N AT cos , 2 2 I ~ N AT sin ,
2 2 R j 2 I Complex Gaussian
Var 2 N 0T
where 2 N 0T 2
1 : Rayleigh, 2 : Rician
63

1 : Rayleigh
2 : Rician
1 2
f 1 2 exp
2 2
1
2
f 2 22 exp 2 2 2
2
I
0
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
where the non-zero mean is found as A T cos sin AT
Now, we return to P(e) computation
P e P 1 2 P 1 2 f 2 d
P 1 2
1
2
exp 2 d 1
2
exp u du
2 2 2
exp 2 2 2
def
1 : Rayleigh
2 : Rician
1
2 2
64

2
2 2
I
P e exp 2 2 exp
d
2 0
2
2
Variable change
0
2

def
2
2
x x
1 x
x 2
2 exp
I
dx
2 0
2
2 0
2
2
def
m 2
x 2 m 2 mx
1
m2 x
I
exp 2 2 exp
dx
AT
2 0
2
2
2
2 0
A T
1
exp
2
2N0
=1
1
E
exp
2
N0
2 N 0T 2
E s 2 t dt A 2T 2
T
65

Coherent vs. Differential PSK
10
Coherent
Differential
-1
10
-2
BER
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
6
SNR [dB]
10
12
There is some performance degradation due to differential detection,

but now a less complex receiver can be used (i.e. no need for phase
tracking).
66
Temporal Characteristics of Modulation Schemes

So far, we have considered pulse shapes which are strictly limited in the
symbol interval. By using a pulse shape to spill over into adjacent symbol
intervals, better spectral efficiency can be achieved, however this also results in
intersymbol interference (ISI).
The following block diagram is commonly used for studying ISI. Assuming
matched filter type implementation for the demodulator,
t lTs
g t ak p t kTs
k
hT t
hC t
hR t
Detector
w t
Actual Channel
Equivalent Channel
zl ak heq l k Ts n lTs where heq hT t hC t hR t

k
n t w t hR t
67
Temporal Characteristics of Modulation Schemes (contd)

Here, we use in pulse shapes which spill over adjacent symbols. This will
bring ISI terms:
zl ak heq l k Ts n lTs al heq 0 ak heq l k Ts n lTs
k l
The condition for no ISI is
ISI terms
1, n 0
heq nTs
0, otherwise
In frequency domain, this requires
l
H eq f constant
Ts
l
See proof Proakis Digital Communications Chapter 9

This condition is known as Nyquist pulse-shaping criterion or Nyquist
condition for zero ISI.
68

In the following, we consider three distinct cases:
Ts
1
2W
l
H eq f
Ts
l
W: Bandwidth of equivalent ch.
For this case, there is no choice for Heq to satisfy Nyquist

criterion.
Ts
1
2W
l
H eq f
Ts
l
For this case, there is only one solution:
Ts , f W
H eq f
0, otherwise
69

1
Ts
2W
l
H eq f
Ts
l
l
For this case, there exists many solutions as to satisfy H eq f cons.
Ts
l
A particular pulse shape which satisfies the above property and has been widely
used in practical applications is raised cosine. (See page 28) The Nyquist pulse
takes zero at the sampling points for adjacent signalling intervals.
X f l Ts cons.
l
70

Under the matched-filter assumption (i.e. which maximizes the output
signal-to-noise ratio), the transmit and receive filters satisfy
HT f H R f
Under the ideal channel assumption , i.e. H C f 1
HT f H R f
H eq f
For raised-cosine equivalent channel response, we can divide it into two

root-raised-cosine (RRC) filters.
Ts ,
H RRC f H RC
Ts
Ts
1
f
cos
2Ts

2
0,
1
2Ts
1
1
f
2Ts
2Ts
f
1
2Ts
71
Temporal Characteristics of BPSK

Consider the baseband BPSK modulated signal with RRC pulse shape
g t ak p t kTs
k
ak 1
Eye pattern is a sketch of g(t) for all possible combinations of a1 , a2 , a3 ,...

Minimum instantaneous
power=0
Maximum instantaneous
power=(1.6)2=4.1 [dB]
Dynamic range=4.1 [dB]
Average power=1=0 [dB]
Peak power Avg. power 4.1 dB
For this example, we observe large dynamic range of instantaneous power
and large peak/average ratio. These make the design of TX power amplifier
difficult.
72
Temporal Characteristics of QPSK

The QPSK signal with pulse shaping can be written as
g t ak p t kTs cos ct bk p t kTs sin c t
ak , bk 1
The instantaneous power of the QPSK signal is
ak p t kTs
bk p t kTs
k
Hence, a QPSK signal suffers similar time-domain problems as a BPSK

signal. Now assume, different pulses are used for I&Q channels. If Q channel
pulse is delayed by 1/2 symbol relative to I channel pulse, i.e. q t p t Ts 2
the instantaneous power is
2
2
ak p t kTs bk p t kTs Ts 2
k
Both terms can not pass through zero simultaneously, hence significantly
increasing the minimum instantaneous power and reducing dynamic range of the
signal. PSD and BER remain unchanged. This is known as Offset QPSK (OQPSK).
73
Temporal Characteristics of QPSK (contd)

Another variant of QPSK is /4-QPSK. This modulation scheme is a
superposition of two QPSK signal constellations offset by /4 relative to each
other.
ak jbk
e j 2 , e j
ak jbk
e j 4 ,e j3 4
ak jbk
, for even k
e j 2 , e j , for odd k
e j 4 , e j3
PSD and BER of /4-QPSK are the same as QPSK.
74
Temporal Characteristics of QPSK (contd)
In QPSK, transitions between opposite points in the signal constellation

cause the instantaneous power to zero, leading to a large dynamic range.
The special structure of /4-QPSK avoids transitions which pass the origin,
reducing dynamic range and peak-to-average power ratio.
75
Continuous FSK
We can get perfect temporal properties by using continuous FSK (CFSK)
ak 1
g t ak p t kTs
k
s t cos 2f c t 2h g d cos 2f ct 2h ak q t kTs
where
t
def t
q t p kTs d
h: Modulation index
Instantaneous power= constant

Dynamic range=0dB
Peak-to-average power ratio=0dB
There is no abrupt switching from one phase to another, avoiding phase
discontinuities.
76
Continuous FSK (contd)

Here, we assume a rectangle pulse shape for p(t).
p(t): Frequency pulse
t ; a 2h ak q t kTs nTs t n 1 Ts
k
n 1
h ak 2h
1/2Ts
k 0
t
Ts
q(t): Phase pulse
3h
2h
h
0
-h
-2h
-3h
1/2
t
Ts
t nTs
an n=0,1,..
2Ts
Phase Tree
+1
+1
-1
-1
+1
-1
Ts
2Ts
3Ts
The shaded path illustrates the phases for

the input sequence {+1,+1,-1}
77

n 1
t ; a 2h ak 2h
k 0
t nTs
ha
an 2 n t n hna n
2Ts
2Ts
nTs t n 1 Ts
han
t n hnan
s t cos 2f ct t ; a cos 2 f c
2Ts
s t cos 2
s
t
cos
2
an 1
an 1
h
t n hn
fc
2Ts
h
t n hn
fc
2Ts
The separation between two carriers is f h T s

For orthogonality, the minimum value for h should be chosen as h=1/2. This
special case is known as Minimum Shift Keying (MSK).
78

We have already introduced MSK as a special case of modulation family of
CFSK.
An MSK signal can be also considered as a special form of OQPSK where
the rectangular pulses are replaced with half-sinusoidal pulses.
s t ak p t 2kTs cos 2f c t ak p t 2kTs Ts sin 2f ct
odd k
p t
even k
t
,0 t 2Ts
cos
2Ts
0,
otherwise
The transmission rate on the two orthogonal carriers is 1/2Ts bits/sec so that
the combined transmission rate is 1/Ts bits/sec.
79
Comparison of MSK, QPSK and OQPSK
Continuous phase is assured in MSK while 90 and 180 phase changes are
observable for OQPSK and QPSK respectively.
80
Comparison of MSK, QPSK and OQPSK (contd)

In terms of temporal
efficiency, MSK obviously
outperforms QPSK and
OQPSK.
The main lobe of MSK is
wider than that of QPSK and
OQPSK and, in terms of nullto-null bandwidth MSK is less
spectral efficient.
MSK has lower sidelobes
than QPSK and OQPSK
Less adjacent channel
interference
MSK, QPSK and OQPSK
have the same power efficiency.
81
Gaussian MSK
The spectral efficiency of MSK can be further improved by prefiltering.
g t ak p t kTs
k
Gaussian
LPF
MSK
Modulator
The frequency response function of Gaussian LPF filter is given as

f 2 ln 2
2 2 B 2t 2
2
h t
H f exp
B exp
B 2
ln 2
ln 2
where B is 3dB-bandwidth of the filter.

We are interested in how a rectangle pulse passed through a Gaussian
LPF will look like.
82
Gaussian MSK (contd)

Frequency pulse
t T / 2
t T /2
f t Q

T
T
2BT
ln 2
BT: Normalized
3dB-Bandwidth
Phase pulse
1
q t 1
x1
t T / 2
T
x
1
exp xQ x
2
2
x2
x2
x1
t T /2
T
Phase pulse corresponding to rectangular

pulse shaping (i.e. no filtering) is also
included in the figure.
83

BT: Normalized
3dB-Bandwidth
of Gaussian filter
For BT , the pulse shape takes its original unfiltered form , i.e. rectangle
pulse. GMSKMSK
The frequency pulse has a duration of 2Ts although signaling rate is 1/Ts. Such
a LPF will result in intersymbol interference which requires sequence estimation
for optimal detection.
84

BT should be chosen as to find a good
compromise between spectral efficiency
and ISI.
As BT decreases, the spectral
efficiency improves (i.e. less bandwith).
Also sidelobes fall off very rapidly (i.e.
less adjacent channel interference).
However, reducing BT results in ISI
and error rate performance degrades (i.e.
observation of an irreducible error floor
due to ISI)
In practical application, BT is typically
chosen as (0.2, 0.5). GSM systems use
GMSK with BT=0.35.
85

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Chapter 3

Bandpass Transmission Techniques

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

Block Diagram for a Digital Communication System

Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion: Analog (i.e., continuous-time

Block Diagram for a Digital Communication System (contd)

Why is Modulation Required?

Why is Modulation Required? (contd)

To (possibly) expand the bandwidth of the transmitted signal for

C B log 2 1 SNR SNR 2 1

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

sm t s m sm,1 , sm, 2 ,..., sm, N

Signal-Space Representations (contd)

sk t sl t dt d sk, sl sk,n sl,n

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

M-ary Amplitude Shift Keying (M-ASK)

Baseband (Equivalent Lowpass) Representation

sm t Am cos 2f ct Re Am e j 2fct sm,lp t Am

Signal-Space (Vector Space) Representation (Obtained through the use of

Signal Energy Esm sm2 t dt Am2 Ts 2

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

Equivalent Lowpass Signal

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

M-ary Phase Shift Keying (M-PSK)

Baseband (Equivalent Lowpass) Representation

sm t A cos 2f ct m Re Ae j m e j 2fct sm,lp t Ae j m

Signal Energy Esm Es sm2 t dt A2Ts 2

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

Example: Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Bandpass Modulation Signal

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

Example: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Am,r, Am,i: Information-bearing signal amplitudes of the quadrature carriers

m arctg Am,i Am,r

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

sm t Am,r cos 2f ct Am,i sin 2f ct Re Am,r jAm,i e j 2fct

sm,lp t Am,r jAm,i Am e jarctg m

E sm sm2 t dt Am2 ,r Am2 ,i Ts 2

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (M-FSK)

Baseband (Equivalent Lowpass) Representation

sm t A cos 2 f c f m t Re Ae j 2f mt e j 2fct sm,lp t Ae j 2f mt

Therefore, the minimum frequency separation between adjacent signals for

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes

Rs : Data rate W : Bandwidth

Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes (contd)

Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes (contd)

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

Comparison of Spectral Efficiency of Modulation Schemes

Data rate 2 log 2 M

M: Modulation order, Constellation size

Power Spectral Density (PSD)

ak : Baseband modulation symbol

then the PSD of g(t) is given as

See Ch.4 of Digital Communications

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012

Example: PSD of BPSK with Rectangle Pulse Shaping

Independent data symbols are assumed

Autocorrelation of data sequence