Solar 2

Wichita State Colloquium
October 8, 2014
The Promise of Solar

Energy
Joe O'Gallagher
Adjunct Professor of Physics, Governors State University
University Park, Illinois
and
Lead Scientific Officer, Solargenix Energy
Sanford, North Carolina
Formerly:
Senior Lecturer and Executive Officer
Department of Physics andThe Enrico Fermi Institute
University of Chicago
(now retired)
October 8, 2014
The Promise of Solar Energy
Why Promise ?
I Have worked in this field for nearly 40 years.
Progress has been somewhat disappointing due in part to
Poor implementation of early concepts

Lack of understanding by the general public about what can and
cannot be done
Other economic obstacles and market conditions
The vision of a renewable energy driven sustainable energy

economy has not been achieved.
The original promise remains unfulfilled, but that theme

provides a context for what I want to talk about today.
There has been much progress.
New technologies and techniques have been developed
Performance is improving and costs are coming down.
It is inevitable that the promise will be fulfilled!

October 8, 2014
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
I would like to thank my colleague of over 30 years, Professor Roland Winston,

formerly of the University of Chicago and now at the University of California,
Merced. Roland is the inventor and primary developer of most of the concepts
belonging to the new optical subdiscipline now called nonimaging optics
which led to the development of so-called Compound Parabolic
Concentrators and related devices for solar energy concentration.
The Development of the Compound Parabolic Concentrator and other

nonimaging optical devices at the University of Chicago between 1975 and
2005 was supported largely by: the U. S. Department of Energy through the
Office of Basic Energy Sciences, The Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Sandia
National Laboratory, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
October 8, 2014
Outline of Talk
General Introduction
Background and Motivation

The Solar Resource
The Role of Concentration

Review of fundamental concepts (The Sine Law)
Consequences (Theoretical limits for Solar Concentration)
Introduction to Nonimaging Optics
Examples and Applications (Mostly a Slide Show)
Overview of Solar Applications and Collection Strategies
The Thermodynamic Limit and the Concentration of

Sunlight
Properties, Problems, and Economics
The Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

Two-Stage Concentrators for solar-thermal and
photovoltaic generation of electricity
Ultra-high concentration: Demonstration and exotic
applications
Summary and Conclusions

October 8, 2014
I
Background and
Motivation
October 8, 2014
Motivation
Why Solar Energy?
The world economy and standard of living are

strongly coupled to energy availability.
Solar Energy research is an exciting, interesting,

dynamic, and satisfying endeavor.
The byproducts of energy production threaten the

quality of life on the planet
Technically challenging (thermodynamics, optics,

semiconductor physics, materials science, etc. )
Interdisciplinary
Very broad based (involves economics, politics, sociology,
etc.)
Atmospheric pollution
Greenhouse gases/global warming
Conventional energy sources are limited and being

consumed at an every increasing rate.
October 8, 2014
October 25, 2012
Global Warming:
Fact or Fiction?
October 8, 2014
Land-Ocean data through 2012

The World is definitely getting Warmer!!
Theres been
about a 0.8o -0.9o
Celsius (1.4o 1.6o Farenheit)
increase in the
last 130 years.
October 8, 2014
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
The World IS getting warmer -- warmer

than it has been in at least the last 2,000
years
Mankinds activities to produce energy
are definitely a major part of the cause!!
Carbon Dioxide levels in the atmosphere
are higher than they have been in the
last 600,000 years.
Our continuous combustion of fossil fuels
is affecting the health of the planet!!
IPCC AR5 Synthesis Report (SYR) Due
out 31 October 2014
October 8, 2014
What about Peak Oil ?
October 8, 2014
10
OIL SUPPLIES ARE LIMITED
Geological Deposits of Fossil Fuels were

produced about 300 million years ago !
Theres only so much that was ever produced.
We are now (or will be soon) reaching the Peak

of world oil production (often referred to as the
Hubbert Peak after M. King Hubbert).
The U. S. peaked in 1970 and has been in a sense

running out of oil ever since
The world will peak (begin to run out) in the next
5 to10 years, if it hasnt already
Its the beginning of the end of abundant energy!
October 8, 2014
11
Production Lags Discovery
October 8, 2014
12
Spaceship
Earth:
The
Only
Planet
weve
got!
October 8, 2014
13
What about Alternative Energy

Sources?
Solar Energy The Source of almost all energy on earth
Wind Energy
Is an indirect form of Solar

Is economical today in many locations
Still has aroused some practical concerns
Biomass
Fossil fuels are stored Solar energy

Capacity dwarfs all the other so-called renewables
Can be thought of as the mother of all renewables
Also has considerable promise
Nuclear
Not usually thought of in this context

Has problems but probably will have to play a role
October 8, 2014
14
II
The Solar Resource
October 8, 2014
15
The Sun
(X-ray Image in False Color)
-The Source
of (amost) all
energy on
earth
- The driver of
all climate on
earth
October 8, 2014
16
Its abundant (very)

Its evenly distributed (sort of)
Its forever (for all intents and purposes)
But
Its highly variable in time

Its very dilute (relatively low intensity spread out
over large areas)
Its expensive to collect (at least now)
Difficult and expensive to convert to major end
uses
October 8, 2014
17
The Solar Resource
Very Large Thermonuclear Fusion Reactor
Surface is almost perfect Black Body Radiator
T = 6000o K
max = 500 nm (5000 Angstroms)
Power Output
1.4 x 106 km (870,000 miles) in diameter

1.5 x 108 km (93,000,000 miles) away
Subtends a half-angle of about 4.7 milliradians (0.27o)
3.8 x 1026 watts (1.3 x 1027 BTUs/hr)

13 trillion Quads*/hr
Power Intercepted by the Earth
1.7 x 1017 watts (5.7 x 1017 BTUs/hr)

590 Quads*/hr = ~10,000 total world energy use!
* One Quad = One Quadrillion (1015) BTUs

The U.S. annual energy consumption is just under 100
quads per year.
October 8, 2014
18
The Solar Resource

(Contd)
The "Solar Constant"
- Imax = 1370 watts/m2 ( in space near earth)
1000 watts/m2 ( at noon in Albuquerque)

170 watts/m2 ( global yearly average)
- Yearly total solar incident on U. S. land area = 40,000 quads
- 0.5 % of U.S. land area @ 50% efficient = total U.S. use
- Solar Energy is abundant!
Problems
- Dilute
- Intermittent (it would help to have storage! beyond the scope
of this talk)
- Source is highly collimated and constantly moving
- Predominantly low grade thermal
Simple Economics (Conventional Energy sources are still

very inexpensive!)
1 M2 - year of sunlight is worth (depending on local climate and fuel
displaced)
~ $20- $200 !! (Thats roughly $2 to $20 per square foot!)
October 8, 2014
19
III
Solar Collection and
Conversion Technologies
October 8, 2014
20
Direct Solar Energy

Conversion
(Active strategies)
THE
SUN
Photovoltaic
Electricity
(PV)
Heat
Hot water and

space heating
Solar Thermal
Electricity
Cooling
(A/C and
Refrigeration)
Industrial
Process
Heat
Fuels and Chemicals

Production
(Hydrogen!)
Solar
Cooking
October 8, 2014
21
The Direct Conversion of

Sunlight to
Electricity:Photovoltaics or
PV
One of the Cleanest and neatest forms
of solar energy
Easy to install and use
Probably one of the most expensive
forms as well
Photovoltaic panels are about 12% to
20% efficient and cost about $50/ft 2 to
$100/ft2
October 8, 2014
22
Flat Plate Photovoltaic Panel
October 8, 2014
23
Photovoltaic Technologies
Single crystal silicon cells (about 95% of todays

market)
Moderate performance ( ~ 12% - 20%)

Expensive ($50/ft2 - $100/ft2 => $3/wp - $7/wp)
(The Peak Wattage of a system is its power output under an

insolation of 1000 watts/M2.)
Thin film(e.g. Cadmium Telluride) or amorphous silicon
lower performance ( ~ 6% - 12%))

Less expensive
Can be deployed as roofing shingles
Multi-junction cells
High performance (
Very expensive (factors of 10 to 100 more than single crystal)
Need concentration to be economical
October 8, 2014
24
Solar Thermal Energy
Absorb radiant energy as heat and transfer to

a working fluid.
Applications
Domestic Hot Water

Space heating
Use concentration to get high temperatures

and run an engine to generate electricity!
Solar thermal refrigeration and Air

Conditioning (also requires higher
temperatures)
October 8, 2014
25
Solar Hot Water
October 8, 2014
26
Flat Plate Geometry is very

simple
and can also collect reflected
light
October 8, 2014
27
IV
The Role of Concentration
October 8, 2014
28
Tracking Parabolic Trough
October 8, 2014
29
Part of the 30 MegaWatt Solar

Thermal Electric system in
California
October 8, 2014
30
A 30 Megawatt Solar Power

Plant in Southern California
October 8, 2014
31
Large Concentrating Parabolic

Dish
October 8, 2014
32
Central Receiver Test

Facility
Sandia Albuquerque
October 8, 2014
33
Role of Concentration*
* Definition: Solar concentration is the process of
collecting sunlight (solar energy) from a large area and
delivering it to a smaller area. The concentration ratio
is the ratio of the collection area to the target area.
To Improve Performance
- Reducing the relative area of the hot thermal

absorber reduces the heat losses ( ~ 1/C) and
allows higher temperatures to be achieved.
- Increased photon flux on solar cell increases
conversion efficiency slowly
To Reduce Costs
- Reduces the required area of expensive

absorber (PV or Thermal) and replaces it with
(presumably) less expensive optics.
October 8, 2014
34
V
Nonimaging Optics
October 8, 2014
35
Background
Nonimaging Optics
New approach to the collection, concentration and

transport of light originally developed by Roland
Winston, myself, and our group at the University of
Chicago
Relaxes the constraints of point-to-point mapping
of imaging optics
Achieves or approaches the maximum geometrical
concentration permitted by physical conservation
laws for a given angular field of view.
Focusing optics always fall short of this limit by a
factor of ~ 2 to 4.
The CPC (Compound Parabolic

Concentrator)
The prototypical nonimaging ideal light collector

invented by Roland Winston
Generic name for whole family of similar devices
October 8, 2014
36
Importance for
Solar Energy Collection
Achieves widest possible angular field

of view for given geometric
concentration
Permits useful concentration without
tracking
1.1 -2x for totally stationary collector
2x 10 x with seasonal adjustment
> 10x 40,000x with relaxed optics and
tracking requirements
October 8, 2014
37
Concentration and the Thermodynamic Limit

Collecting Aperture, A1
Cgeom = A1/A2
s
c
i
t
Op
Absorbing Aperture, A2
For Cgeom >1 ( i.e. for A2 < A1) the optics must limit the field of view
October 8, 2014
38
Concentration Limit
Cmax
sin
Cmax
n2
sin 2
In two dimensional
(trough-like) geometry
In three dimensional
(cone-like) geometry
n is index of refraction at absorber surface,

is half-angle of acceptance
Any system that can attain these limits is referred to as ideal.
All conventional imaging systems fall short of this limit by
factors of at least 2 to 4
October 8, 2014
39
The CPC
BC
October 8, 2014
40
Additional CPC
Designs for
different
absorber
shapes based
on edge-ray
principle
October 8, 2014
41
Early Argonne XCPC Design

(Evacuated Dewar-type Absorber tube
with selective surface)
October 8, 2014
42
CPC Solar Geometry
Achieves widest possible

angular field of view for given
geometric concentration
Permits useful concentration
without tracking
1.1x -2x for totally

stationary collector
2x 10 x with seasonal
adjustment
Collects large fraction of

diffuse component of sunlight
Higher Concentration (> 10x
>40,000x) requires tracking
with multi-stage system but
allows relaxed optics and
tracking tolerances
October 8, 2014
latitude
angle
Cmax
n
sin
43
VI
Early Applications
October 8, 2014
44
Selected Applications of Nonimaging

Optics in Solar Energy
Nontracking Collectors
Evacuated CPCs
The Integrated CPC (Evacuated)
Nonevacuated CPCS
High Concentration Tracking Collectors

Two stage Concentrators
Solar Thermal Conversion
Solar Photovoltaic conversion
Ultra- High Flux Solar Furnaces
October 8, 2014
45
Goal
to reduce the heat losses at high operating temperatures

(from the hot absorber to ambient) as much as possible).
Combine
Evacuated CPC
Concentrators
Vacuum insulation (eliminates conductive and convective

heat losses)
Spectrally selective absorber surface (suppresses
radiation loss)
Nonimaging concentration (reduces surface area of hot
absorber)
Achieves high temperature end uses with a

nontracking collector
October 8, 2014
46
CPC with evacuated Receiver

Energy Design Collectors installed on U of C
Physics building in 1986
October 8, 2014
47
Integrated CPCs
(Evacuated)
October 8, 2014
48
Ultra-High Flux Applications

NREL Solar Furnace
(Artists Conception)
October 8, 2014
49
Two-Stage Dish Thermal

Concentrators
October 8, 2014
50
Ultra-High Flux
Potential Applications for Ultra High

Solar Flux Concentration
Production of Exotic Materials (e.g. Fullerenes)

Hydrogen Production (Direct water splitting)
Solar Pumping of Lasers
High Temperature Gas Turbine Solar Receivers
(Weizmann Institute
for Science, Rehovath,
Israel)
Solar Thermal Propulsion in Space
Solar Thermo - Photovoltaic Converters
October 8, 2014
51
05/13/16
Solar Energy
52
October 8, 2014
53
VII
Recent Developments
October 8, 2014
54
New Design for eXternal

reflector CPC with evacuted
tube
(XCPC)
Confidential - Do not Circulate!!
Geometry for 1mm thick

glass tube
New XCPC
Profile
October 8, 2014
58
New XCPC Prototype Test

Data
Cleveland,T. and M. Ross, High Temperature Performance Evaluation of the XCPC Concentrating
Collector, Preliminary Report from the North Carolina Solar Center, August, 2012
October 8, 2014
59
High Concentration
Photovoltaic Applications
October 8, 2014
60
Concentrating PV system
Facetted Dish, C1 = 116X
October 8, 2014
61
Present Limitations of
Concentrating PV
In a series string of cells, the current is limited to that

produced by the cell with the lowest illumination.
One dark cell in such a string effectively kills the string

output
Thus, for acceptable performance, PV cells wired together in

an array require near uniform illumination on all cells.
One solution is that the entire concentrator can be scaled up

and coupled to a larger array of cells, if optical mixing can be
employed to distribute the flux nearly uniformly over a multicell array.
October 8, 2014
62
Square TIR Optical Mixer
October 8, 2014
63
Comparison No Mixer/Mixer
Flux Map
Exit Aperture - Refractive Mixer
Flux Map
Entrance of Optical Mixer
1.00
30.00
24.00
18.00
12.00
6.00
0.00
October 8, 2014
24.00-30.00
18.00-24.00
12.00-18.00
6.00-12.00
0.00-6.00
0.80
0.60
0.80-1.00
0.60-0.80
0.40-0.60
0.40
0.20
0.20-0.40
0.00-0.20
0.00
64
Dish with Concentrating

Truncated Pyramidal TIR mixer
slope = 3 milliradians
C1 = 800X
C2 = 2.5X
C1C2 = 2000X
October 8, 2014
65
High Concentration PV
Applications
Nonimaging concentrator/mixers very

effective in making the irradiance highly
uniform
Can boost geometric concentration by

factor of 2 to 4.
Symmetry breaking critical to function:

(e.g., Square cross section mixer, not
cylindrical mixer)
TIR is preferable for high throughput
October 8, 2014
66
Progress in PV technologies
October 8, 2014
67
One Possible Long-term Vision

- The use of ultra-high solar concentration for the
production of hydrogen by water-splitting.
- Hydrogen can be used as a fuel or to produce
electricity in a fuel cell.
- Obviously hydrogen is ultra-clean (by-product is
water!)
- Solves the storage problem!
-The concept of doing this with a central receiver
plant has been under study at the Weizmann Institute
in Israel for some time.
October 8, 2014
68
Overview of Problem
The Need for High Concentration
Splitting water requires temperatures in the range 1500K - 2000K
In turn requires a net average concentration of 3000 4000 suns
The ideal concentration limit (for achievable optical errors) is

about 10,000 suns
Conventional single-stage focusing dish systems fall short of this

limit by a factor of 3 4, and conventional central receiver
systems fall even farther short of these requirements.
Bottom line: We cant hope achieve the required concentrations

with a conventional single stage central receiver
The Need for Nonimaging Secondaries
The only option for achieving required fluxes in a central

receiver design is to use some kind of nonimaging secondary at
the reactor.
This concept of has been around for some time but has not been
seriously investigated until relatively recently.
October 8, 2014
69
The simplest geometry for a two-stage central

receiver is a central tower (height H) surrounded
by a circular heliostat field. The secondary is a
simple CPC with acceptance angle c. (Note that c
= the rim angle of the system.) The optimum
field is circular with radius R = H*tan c = L* sinc.
October 8, 2014
70
Secondary Concentrator
Options
WIS beamdown secondary
October 8, 2014
Source: Timinger, et.al., Solar Energy 69(2),

2000
71
Findings
The highest possible concentrations can only be achieved

with an axially symmetric circular field surrounding a central
tower with a CPC looking vertically downward.
80% of the ideal limit can be achieved in this configuration

with a tower height to field diameter ratio of about 1.0.
The optimum configuration without a secondary is always

very different from that for the optimum with a secondary.
In general, a pre-existing configuration that has been

originally designed for operation as a one-stage system
should not be used as the starting point for designing a two
stage system.
October 8, 2014
72
VIII
October 8, 2014
Present Status
73
Present Status
Economics of Solar Energy is still problematic

CPCs and other nonimaging devices hold
promise of eventual simpler, less expensive,
higher performing collection technologies
Near Term Goals:
Inexpensive commercial non-evacuated CPCs

High Performance Evacuated CPCs for Solar Cooling
and Heating
Development of TIR terminal concentrators/mixers
for PV applications with advanced high efficiency
cells
Longer Term Goals
Mass production of low cost evacuated CPC for

widespread production of Solar Thermal Energy
Very High Concentration Systems for Hydrogen
Production through water-splitting.
Towards a Solar Hydrogen Economy!
October 8, 2014
74
Final Thought
Energy
from the sun

must eventually play a
major role in providing a
"sustainable" source for
mankind's needs.
October 8, 2014
75
Pale Blue
Dot
October 8, 2014
76
October 8, 2014
77
Concentration
Proofs of Limit
Based on Thermodynamic Argument
If C could be made larger (Absorber A 2 smaller) there would

not be enough area to radiate away incident energy and its
temperature would begin to rise in violation of 2 nd Law
Based on Phase Space Conservation
Liouville Theorem: Brightness is conserved along ray
Role of Concentration
Improved Performance
Reduced area of thermal absorber reduces the heat losses

on an aperture basis ( ~ 1/C)
Increased photon flux on solar cell increases conversion
efficiency slowly
Reduced Cost
Reduces area of expensive absorber (PV or Thermal)
October 8, 2014
78
Increasing Appetite for

Energy
While the developed world
has been limiting growth in
energy demand, the
developing nations want
their turn!
October 8, 2014
79
Spectrally Selective
Absorber Surface
October 8, 2014
80
The Flowline or
Trumpet
Concentrato
r
October 8, 2014
81

Concentrators
October 8, 2014
82

Concentrators
October 8, 2014
83

Concentrators
October 8, 2014
84
Date
Summary of Hi Flux
Measurements
Location
Secondary Measured Total
Flux
(suns)
February
1988
Chicago
March
1989
Chicago
Lens-Oil
filled
Silver
vessel
(n = 1.53)
56,000 +/5000
Solid
Sapphire
84,000 +/3500
DTIRC ( n =
NREL
(Golden CO)
Water Cooled
Reflecting
Silver
CPC - air filled
44 watts
72 watts
1.76)
July Aug
1990
Power
22,000 +/1000
3.5
Kilowatts
(n = 1.0)
March 1994 NREL

(Golden CO)
05/13/16
Fused Silica
(Quartz)
(n = 1.46
Solar Energy
DTIRC
with
50,000 +/2000
900 Watts
85

NREL Solar Furnace (Aerial
View)
October 8, 2014
86
New Generation CPCs
We describe here some advances in the optical and thermal models for
non-evacuated CPCs and discuss in some detail, the development and
prototype performance testing results for one new design, referred to
here as CPC 2.0.
We also review a proposed new eXternal reflector CPC (or XCPC)

design for optimum match with absorption air conditioning applications
October 8, 2014
87
The CPC 2.0
The overall scale of the design is determined by the outer diameter of

the absorber tube, here 1.125 inches ( 2.858 cm).
The design acceptance angle is c = 35o. This allows the apparent

position of the sun to be within the acceptance angle for at least 7
hours a day throughout the year.
For a fully developed (untruncated) traditional CPC profile, this

acceptance angle yields a maximum geometric concentration C max =
1/sinc = 1.74X..
To allow for mechanical tolerances and provide thermal isolation of the

absorber, there must be a gap, g, between the reflector cusp
underneath the absorber tube and the tube itself. Here, the design gap
was chosen to be 0.125 inches (3.18 mm).
This introduces unavoidable optical throughput losses due to a fraction of the

reflected rays passing underneath the absorber.
However, these losses can be reduced by placing a small cavity in the form
of a vee-groove underneath the absorber and using some form of
modified cusp CPC solution.
October 8, 2014
88
CPC 2.0 Optical Profile
October 8, 2014
89
Basic Geometry only Normal

Incidence
October 8, 2014
90
CPC 2.0 on test stand
October 8, 2014
91
Comparison with non-concentrating

Collectors
October 8, 2014
92
Summary
Nonimaging Optics has changed our approach

to solar energy concentration
Useful concentration is possible w/o tracking

Combined with evacuated selective absorber
delivers mid-temperature heat (200 300 C) from
stationary collector ( for air conditioning or
industrial processes)
Nonimaging Secondaries promise high temperature
systems (>500C) with relaxed primary optics and
tracking requirements (e.g. lower cost)
Nonimaging Solar Furnaces now can produce
concentrated fluxes dramatically exceeding
previous levels
October 8, 2014
93
Small Solar Power Tower

Sandia Nat. Lab., Albuquerque, NM
October 8, 2014
94
1.5x Geometric Only
1.5X Alum, Abs 0.95 (no

Fresnel)
With glass tube(1mm) (with
AR)

Solar 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solar 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wichita State Colloquium

The Promise of Solar

The Promise of Solar Energy

I Have worked in this field for nearly 40 years.

Progress has been somewhat disappointing due in part to

Poor implementation of early concepts

The vision of a renewable energy driven sustainable energy

The original promise remains unfulfilled, but that theme

New technologies and techniques have been developed

Performance is improving and costs are coming down.

It is inevitable that the promise will be fulfilled!

The Promise of Solar Energy

I would like to thank my colleague of over 30 years, Professor Roland Winston,

The Development of the Compound Parabolic Concentrator and other

The Promise of Solar Energy

Background and Motivation

The Role of Concentration

Examples and Applications (Mostly a Slide Show)

Overview of Solar Applications and Collection Strategies

The Thermodynamic Limit and the Concentration of

Properties, Problems, and Economics

The Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

Summary and Conclusions

The Promise of Solar Energy

The Promise of Solar Energy

The world economy and standard of living are

Solar Energy research is an exciting, interesting,

The byproducts of energy production threaten the

Technically challenging (thermodynamics, optics,

Conventional energy sources are limited and being

The Promise of Solar Energy

October 25, 2012

The Promise of Solar Energy

Land-Ocean data through 2012

The Promise of Solar Energy

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

The World IS getting warmer -- warmer

The Promise of Solar Energy

What about Peak Oil ?

The Promise of Solar Energy

OIL SUPPLIES ARE LIMITED

Geological Deposits of Fossil Fuels were

Theres only so much that was ever produced.

We are now (or will be soon) reaching the Peak

The U. S. peaked in 1970 and has been in a sense

The Promise of Solar Energy

Production Lags Discovery

The Promise of Solar Energy

The Promise of Solar Energy

What about Alternative Energy

Solar Energy The Source of almost all energy on earth

Is an indirect form of Solar

Fossil fuels are stored Solar energy

Also has considerable promise

Not usually thought of in this context

The Promise of Solar Energy

The Promise of Solar Energy

The Promise of Solar Energy

The Promise of Solar Energy

Its abundant (very)

Its highly variable in time

The Promise of Solar Energy