Division of Ocean Bottom

3 divisions:
1) Ocean
continen
t margin
2) MOR
3) Deep
Ocean
plains

Abyssal Plain

Occupies 40% of
the ocean floor
Tremendous
diversity in
terms of
landforms
It has deposits
from continents
(terrigenous),
marine life
(biogenous) and
salts and mineral
(inorganic)

Resources from Abyssal plain

PMN (Poly
Metallic
Nodules) or
Manganese
nodules
Concentration of
metals around a
core
Depth 40006000m

Global

First found in
distribution Kara
of PMN
sea,
Arctic ocean
These
nodules are
found in the
all the oceans

economically
viable
-central
Indian Ocean
and Eastern
Pacific Ocean.

PMN
PMN are small
nodules of metals
like, Manganese,
Iron, Silicon, Al,
Nickel and Cobalt
etc.
some of the
minerals are rare on
land.
Countries are in
race to explore and
extract PMN

2002- India got approval from ISA

Pioneer Investor for 15 years
India - 1,50,000 ml ha ocean
stretch in central Indian Ocean
out of 10 to15 ml ha of PMN
India RV Samudra Ratnakar +
equipment from S Korea
NIOT developing tech for
exploration
2011 - China acquired 10,000 ha
area
2013 UK co. in Pacific ocean

India
PMN

UN convention on Laws of the

seas
1983
60 countries signed
came into force in 1993
1) Decides the maritime
boundary
2) Deep sea mining (ISA,
Kingston, Jamaica)
3) Environment protection
4) Dispute settlement

ISA
UNCLOS

 Decides
UNCLOS territorial
waters,
contiguous
zone and EEZ
for coastal
countries
EEZ special
right of the
state to
explore
minerals or
produce
energy from
the area

Questio
Q. Critically evaluate
n
the various resources of
UPSC
the oceans which can
be harnessed to meet
Mains
the resource crisis in
2014
the world (10)

Types of Islands
4 types of Islands:
1) Volcanic (plate/ hot spot)
2) Continental
3) Coral islands
4) Sand bar islands

Types of Islands

Island
continental

volcanic

coral

Formation
Once part of
large
continent
O-O plate
collision, Hot
spot
Formed due
to coral reefs

Types of Islands
Volcanic islands
Continental Islands

Types of Islands
Coral Islands
Sand-bar islands

Example of Islands
Volca Contin Coral
nic
ental
Japan Shri
Lakshad
Lanka weep

Philipp Madaga Maldives

ines
scar
Kurile Vancou Mauritiu
ver
s

Sandb
ar
Long
Island
(New
York)

Coral Reefs
Indicative of
health of
Marine
ecology
Primary
food-chain
Source of
great
biodiversity

Coral Reefs
Corals = tiny fleshy sea anemones polyps.
They extract Ca from the sea water for their
skeletons to protect their bodies.
One generation die on previous generation.
Corals live symbiotic relationship with
microscopic plant Zooxanthalae,
photosynthesis capabilities.
Zooxanthalae provide food to corals and
corals provide protection to zooxanthalae

Condition for growth of Corals

Need submarine shallow platform (50
meter deep) to receive sun light
Temperature- 25-27 degree
Warm, tropical and low latitude
waters
Salinity 33 ppt
Not at mouth of river, No turbulent
water
Need circulating nutrient rich water

Spatial distribution of Corals

Coral Bleaching

When corals
are in stress
they expel
zooxanthalae
thats why
coral seem
white => coral
bleaching.
Ultimately,
without food
coral die

Reason of coral Bleaching

Global warming => increase in sea
surface temperature
Ozone depletion => increase in solar
irradiation
Ocean acidification
algal bloom
Increase sedimentation from rivers
Marine pollution oil spill
Diseases

Distribution of Coral Bleaching

Formation of coral reef

Corals can be
developed both
at the margins of
the continents or
around islands
3 stages of coral
formation
1) Fringing reef
2) Barrier reef
3) Atoll

Fringing reef
Coral reef
developed along
margin of an island
If Gap is created
between corals and
the surface of
island
Small water bodies
= lagoons

Barrier reef

Reef is not
continuous but
broken
Lagoon can
connect to open
ocean
Most extensive
If they are parallel
to coast -> barrier
reef

Atoll

The hill submerged

Only narrow ring of
coral is visible

Fringing Reef

Atolls

Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Marine pollution
Dangerous for
marine
biodiversity
Marine diversity
is the wealth of
the earth
Harmful to global
environment

Marine pollution

Issue
Oil spill

Run-off from
land
Atmospheric
input
Dumping of

effect
Marine life
devoid of
sunlight and
oxygen
Eutrophication Algal bloom
makes ocean
water acidic
Toxicity harms

Tar balls
Tar balls lumps
of petroleum
oil spillage from
tankers
The wax-like
lumps are caused
due to the
reaction of the oil
with sea water
Sticky and greasy

Ocean bottom relief:

1) Continental shelf
2) Continental slope
3) Continental rise
4) Abyssal plain
Types of islands
Formation of coral
Marine pollution

Motion of Ocean water

Horizontal

Waves
Creation of waves:
wind pushes the water body
gravity pulls the crests of the waves
downward, the falling water pushes
the former troughs upward.
Actual motion of water beneath the
wave is circular

Waves

Breaking up of the waves

when the
depth of
water is less
than half the
wavelength
of the wave,
the wave
breaks

Motion of Ocean water

Horizontal

Ocean Currents
Ocean currents are narrow and
shallow (up to 500 meter deep),
stream of water circulating along the
Ocean margins
Circumnavigate the earth

Ocean currents
Heat
distributio
n from
Poles to
Eq.
warm
water
from
equator

Forces responsible for Ocean

Wind
Current

Dominant force : wind

Most of
the
currents
follow the
direction
of the
trade
winds,
Westerlie
s and
polar
easterlies

Insolation: temperature gradient

Water expands under high temperature
Cold water near poles
Water lighter near equator, than at the
poles
Cold water - heavier (denser) sinks
downward
Cold water from pole flow towards
equator at subsurface level, to balance
loss of water at equator

Insolation: temperature gradient

Insolation: Salinity gradient

Salinity increases density of water
Denser water sinks at depth
Less saline water move towards high
saline water on the surface
High saline water move towards less
saline water at sub-surface
Equator rainfall less saline water
Poles iceberg high saline water

Factors modifying the ocean

currents
Factor deflect the path of the
currents:
Coastlines modify the path of the
currents
coriolis force deflect the path

Coriolis effect

Due to
Earths
rotation W>E
Deflective
forcedeflect the
direction of
currents
Clockwise
N
Anticlockwise -S

Q. Consider the following

factors:
1. Rotation of the earth
2. Air pressure and wind
3. Density of ocean water
4. Revolution of the earth
Which of the above factors
influence ocean currents?

oceano
UPSC

Prelims
2012

oceano
a)
b)
c)
d)

1 and 2
1,2,3
1 and 4
2,3,4

Ans. B)
Rotation of the earth -> coriolis
force
Air pressure and wind ->
planetary winds
Density of water -> salinity

UPSC

Prelims
2012

Q. Consider the following

statements:
1. Ocean currents are slowsurface movement of
water in ocean
2. Ocean current assist in
maintaining the earths
heat balance
3. Ocean currents are set in
motion primarily by
prevailing winds

oceano
UPSC

Prelims
2002

4. Tropical currents are

affected by the
configuration of the ocean
Which of the statements
are correct?
a) 1 and 2
b) 2,3 and 4
c) 1,3 and 4
d) 1,2,3 and 4
Ans. B)

oceano
UPSC

Prelims
2002

Ocean currents of the world

North Atlantic Ocean Currents

New found land

Meeting of gulf
stream and
Labrador current
at new found land
fishing ground =
grand banks
Foggy area
dangerous for
shipping

Europe
ports
North Atlantic
driftof
Norway
Narvik,
Hammerfest
operating in
winter- at
same
latitude
ports in
Russia

Canary current

cold current
Passes near
canary islands
desiccating
effect to
Sahara desert

Sargasso sea
Gyre of north

equatorial current,
gulf stream and
canary current
Water confined
calm and
motionless
HP zone high
salinity
Sargassum- sea
weed obstruct
navigation
Devoid of nutrients
poor marine life

South Atlantic Ocean Currents

 Meeting of
Bahia Blanca
warm
Brazilian
and cold
Falkland
current
Important
fishing
ground

Benguela current
Cold current
Desiccating
effect to Namib
desert

North Pacific Ocean Currents

Desiccating effect of cold current

cold Californian
current
Chilling effect on
western coast of N.
America
Drying effect to
Mojave desert,
Sonoran desert in
California

Meeting of cold-warm current near

Japan
Meeting of warm
Kuroshio and cold
Oyashio current
near southern
Japan
Rich fishing ground
Foggy area

South Pacific Ocean Currents

Upwelling on Peruvian coast

Cold
Peru/Humboldt
current
desiccating effect
to Atacama
dessert
Peruvian coast
upwelling rich
fishing ground

North Indian Ocean Currents

Navigation in Indian Ocean

In summer: wind
and current flow
towards India
Arabia to India
In winter: wind +
current flow
towards Arabia sea vessel from
India to Arabia
Important for seatrade, cultural
interaction

South Indian Ocean Currents

Q. Which one the following factor

is responsible for the change in
regular direction of the ocean
currents in the Indian ocean?
a) Indian ocean is half an ocean
b) Indian ocean has monsoon
drift
c) Indian ocean is a land-locked
ocean
d) Indian ocean has greater
variation in salinity
Ans. B)

oceano
UPSC

Prelims
1997

oceano

Q. The most important fishing

ground of the world are found
in the regions where:
UPSC
a) Warm and cold
atmospheric currents meet
b) Rivers drain out large
amount of fresh water into Prelims
sea
c) Warm and cold oceanic
2013
currents meet

d) Continental shelf is
inundating
Ans. C)
1) New found land
2) Bahia Blanca
3) Japanese coast

oceano
UPSC

Prelims
2013

Motion of Ocean water

Horizontal

Ekman layer
The wind exerts
stress on the
ocean surface
proportional to
the square of the
wind speed and
in the direction
of the wind.
This motion
extends to a
depth of ~ 100
m

Ekman spiral
Wind force
balanced by
coriolis force and
friction
Water defect 45
deg under
coriolis force
Depth wind
force reducedeflect away
from wind
direction

Ekman Transport
Ekman spiral 90
deg = Ekman
transport
Deflect Right in
N. hemi
Deflect Left in
S. hemi
Due to coriolis
force

Up-welling
When Ekman
transport induce
divergence at
the coast
divergence
draws water
from below to
the surface

Ekman transport in southern

hemisphere

Peruvian coast

Ekman transport

Up-welling

cool and
nutrient rich
water come at
the surface
Phytoplankton
reproduce
rapidly in this
condition
zooplankton ->
nekton

Up-welling regions
Cold current
Humboldt
current =
Peruvian coast
Gulf of Guinea,
Iberian coast
Up-welling rich
nutrients =>
fishing

Down-welling
When Ekman
transport
induce
convergence
at the coast
convergence
forces surface
water
downward

Down-welling
Descending
water -warm
water saline
push down
at the
bottom

Motion of Ocean water

Horizontal

Ocean tide
Rise and fall of
sea water due
to gravitation
forces of sun
and moon is
called tides
Gravitational +
centrifugal
forces

Ocean tides
If moon
stationary
every place on
earth
experience 2 HT
and 2 LT in 24
hours

Ocean tides
But moon also
revolves around
earth in 27.5 days
So, same location
comes under moon
not exactly after 24
hours but 24.52
min
So, diurnal
frequency of HT
and LT is 12.26 min

Tidal range

Difference
between High
tide and Low
Tide
Depends upon:
1) Depth of
ocean water
2) Configuration
of coastline
3) Openness
and closeness
of the sea

Highest tidal range

India: Gulf of
Khambhat
World: Bay Fundy

Ebb Flood/Flow
The time between the high tide and
low tide, when the water level is
falling, is called the ebb.
The time between the low tide and
high tide, when the tide is rising, is
called the flow or flood

Apogee and Perigee tides

Moons orbit
around the
earth elliptical
Perigee tides
higher than
apogee tides

Syzygy positions

the sun, the

moon and the
earth are in a
straight line
(Syzygy)
occur twice a
month
Conjuction
New moon
opposition
full moon

Quadrature position

sun and moon

are at right
angles to
each other
(Quadrature)
The forces of
the sun and
moon
counteract
7/8 D of every
fortnight

Spring Neap Tide

- Spring , neap =
High tide
Spring highest
HT
Neap Lowest HT
- there is a 7
Days interval
between the
spring tides and
neap tides.

comparison
Neap tide
Spring tide

HT higher than
usual
LT lower than
usual
Syzygy position
Gravitational force
from both sun and
moon together

HT lower than usual

LT higher than
usual
Quadrature position
Gravitational force
of sun and moon
counter-act

Questio
n
UPSC

A) During the neap

tides, high tide is
lower and low tide is
higher than usual
R) The neap tide, unlike Prelims
spring tide, occurs on
2001
new moon instead of
full moon.
Ans. A true, R is

Tidal currents
When the tide is
channelled
between islands or
into bays and
estuaries
Coastward = flood
current
Seaward = ebb
current
Reversing tidal
currents great
velocity

Tidal bores
when seawater
enters into mouths
of low lying rivers
during HT
Narrow opening
gentle gradient of
river basin
Obstructed by river
water so steep
wall of tidal bore

Q. Which of the following

statement is NOT correct?
a) Gulf with narrow fronts and
wider rears experience high
tide
b) Tidal currents take place
when a gulf is connected
with open sea by narrow
channel
c) Tidal bore occurs when a tide
enters the narrow shallow
estuary of river

Questio
n
UPSC
Prelims
2004

Estuary
If a mouth of a
river is low-lying
and submerged
under sea-water
River deposit
create longnarrow delta =
estuary deltas
Ex. Deltas of Tapi,
Narmada

d) The tidal nature of the

mouth of river Hooghly is of
the crucial importance to
Kolkata port
Ans. D)
Tidal bores at Hooghly are
constraints for shipping at
port
- Rushing current imbalance
the docking ships

Questio
n
UPSC
Prelims
2004

Hooghly river
Hooghly
-Distributary of
Ganga
Kolkata on left
bank of Hooghly
Tidal bores in
Kolkata port

Importance of Tide
Tidal height important for Harbours with
shallow bars at the entrance, which
prevent ships and boats from entering into
the harbour.
Tides are also helpful in desilting the
sediments and in removing polluted water
from river estuaries.
Tidal energy to generate electrical power

Q. Consider the
following statements:
1) Tides are great help
in navigation and
fishing
2) High tide enable big
ships to enter or
leave the harbour
safely
3) Tide prevents

Questio
n
UPSC
Prelims
2000

a)
b)
c)
d)

1 and 4
2,3 and 4
1,2 and 3
1,2,3 and 4

Statement 1 is wrong.
Tide not helpful in navigation
Ans. B)

Questio
n
UPSC
Prelims
2000

Tidal ports
Diamond harbour
Kandla port

Ports
Non-tidal ports
Tidal ports

Feed by sea water

during high tide
Located on coast
Ex. Kandla

Feed by rivers
Relatively in-land
Ex. Kolkata port

port

12 major ports
of India
facts

Kandla

First port developed after

independence

JNPT

To decongest Mumbai port

Murmagao, KN

Known for iron ore export

New Manglore port

Export iron ore from Kudremukh

mine in KN

Kochi

At the entrance of a lagoon

Tuticorin port

Also Handles cargo of Shri Lanka

and Maldives

Chennai

Oldest artificial port

vishakhapatnam

Deepest landlocked port, export

iron ore

Kolkata port

Riverine port

Haldia

To decongest Kolkata port

Motion of ocean water

Horizontal wave,
current
Vertical tide

Tidal energy

Power is harnessed
taking advantage of
difference of level
between HT and LT
A dam is
constructed to
clock receding
water during LT
Water is released
from dam turbine
- electricity

Tidal energy in world

La Rance, France
Scotland, UK
potential of
8000MW in India
Gulf of Cambay,
gulf of Kutch,
Sundarban (WB)
50 MW plant in gulf
of Kutch 2012

Tidal stream Turbines

energy
are
placed on ocean
floor
Turbine are run by
fast moving ocean
currents
Fastest ocean
currents: gulf
stream off East
USA

Motion of Ocean water

Horizontal

Motion of ocean water

Horizontal wave,
current
Vertical tide,
upwelling down welling
Tidal energy