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EarthquakesandPlateTectonics
Earthquakesarecausedbyplateinter
actionsalongtectonicplateboundaries
Plateboundariesareidentifiedand
definedbyearthquakes
Earthquakesoccurateachofthethree
typesofplateboundaries:divergent,
transform,andconvergent
Atdivergentboundaries,tensionalforces
produceshallowfocusquakesonnormalfaults
Attransformboundaries,shearforcesproduce
shallowfocusquakesalongstrikeslipfaults
Atconvergentboundaries,compressional
forcesproduceshallowtodeepfocusquakes
alongreversefaults
WorldEarthquakeDistribution
Mostearthquakesoccurinnarrow
geographicbeltswhichmarktectonic
plateboundaries
Mostimportantconcentrationsin
circumPacificandMediterranean
Himalayanbelts
Shallowfocusearthquakescommon
alongthecrestsofmidoceanicridges
Nearlyallintermediateanddeepfocus
earthquakesoccurinBenioffzones
inclinedseismicactivityassociatedwith
descendingoceanicplateatsubductionzones)
Earthquakes
Anearthquakeisatremblingorshakingofthe
groundcausedbythesuddenreleaseofenergy
storedintherocksbeneathEarthssurface
Energyisreleasedduringearthquakesinthe
formofseismicwaves
Elasticreboundtheoryearthquakesarea
suddenreleaseofstrainprogressivelystoredin
rocksthatbenduntiltheyfinallybreakand
movealongafault
Juan de Fuca
SeismicWaves
Focus(orhypocenter)thepointofinitial
breakageandmovementalongafault,
whereseismicwavesoriginate
EpicenterpointonEarthssurface
directlyabovethefocus
Twotypesofseismicwavesareproduced
duringearthquakes
Bodywavestraveloutwardfromthefocusin
alldirectionsthroughEarthsinterior
SurfacewavestravelalongEarthssurface
awayfromtheepicenter
BodyWaves
Pwavecompressional(longitudinal)body
waveinwhichrockvibratesbackandforth
paralleltothedirectionofwavepropagation
Fast(4to7kms/sec)wavethatisthefirstor
primarywavetoarriveatrecordingstation
followingearthquake
Passthroughsolidsandfluids
Swaveshearing(transverse)bodywave
inwhichrockvibratesbackandforth
perpendiculartothedirectionofwave
propagation
Slower(2to5km/sec)wavethatisthe
secondarywavetoarriveatrecording
stationfollowingearthquake
Passthroughsolidsonly
SurfaceWaves
Slowesttypeofseismicwaves
producedbyearthquakes
Lovewavessidetosidemotion
ofthegroundsurface
Canttravelthroughfluids
Rayleighwavesgroundmoves
inanellipticalpathoppositethe
directionofwavemotion
Extremelydestructivetobuildings
Assessing Earthquake
Hazards
Measuring earthquakes as they
happen
Looking for evidence in the rock
record
MeasuringEarthquakes
Seismometersusedtomeasureseismicwaves
LocatingEarthquakes
Traveltimecurveusedtodeterminedistancetofocus
basedontimebetweenfirstPandSwavearrivals
LocatingEarthquakes
MeasuringtheSizeofEarthquakes
Earthquakesizemeasuredtwowaysintensityand
magnitude
Intensityameasureoftheeffectsanearthquake
produces(onbothstructuresandpeople)
MeasuringtheSizeofEarthquakes
Sizeofearthquakesmeasuredintwowaysintensityandmagnitude
Magnitudeisameasureofthe
amountofenergyreleasedby
anearthquake
Richterscale
Momentmagnitudemore
objectivemeasureofenergy
releasedbyamajorearthquake
Usesrockstrength,surfacearea
offaultrupture,andamount
ofmovement
Smallerearthquakesaremorecommonthanlargerones
Chile vs Haiti
Chili Magnitude 8.8,
Intensity >VIII,
Subduction Zone
Haiti Magnitude 7.0,
intensity >VIII, Strike
Slip
Proximity to EQ
Engineering
AssessingFutureHazards
LocationandSizeof
EarthquakesintheU.S.
Earthquakesoccurthroughoutthe
U.S.,butaremuchmorecommonin
thewesternstatesandAlaska
Largestseismicrisksorhazardsexist
neartheplateboundaryalongtheU.S.
Pacificcoast(e.g.,SanAndreasfault),
andaroundNewMadrid,Missouri
Seismicriskdeterminedbasedon
theassumptionthatlargefuture
earthquakeswilloccurwherethey
haveoccurredinthepast
Earthquakelocationssince1977
EarthquakePredictionand
SeismicRisk
Accurateandconsistentshortterm
earthquakepredictionnotyetpossible,
threemethodsassistindetermining
probabilitythatanearthquakewilloccur:
Measurementofchangesinrockproperties,
suchasmagnetism,electricalresistivity,
seismicvelocity,andporosity,whichmay
serveasprecursorstoearthquakes
Studiesoftheslipratealongfaultzones
Paleoseismologystudiesthatdeterminewhereand
whenearthquakeshaveoccurredandtheirsize
Averageintervalsbetweenlargeearthquakesand
thetimesincethelastoneoccurredcanalsobe
usedtoassesstherisk(overagivenperiodoftime)
thatalargequakewilloccur
Fault carps
from ground
rupture
EffectsofEarthquakes
(Primary)
Earthquakesproduceseveral
typesofeffects,allofwhichcan
causelossofpropertyandhuman
life
Groundmotionisthefamiliar
tremblingandshakingoftheland
duringanearthquake
Cantopplebuildingsandbridges
Permanentdisplacementoftheland
surfacecanalsooccur,leaving
fracturesandscarps
Tsunami
Tsunami(seismicseawaves)
verylargeseawavescausedby
suddenupwardordownward
movementoftheseafloorduring
submarineearthquakes
generallyproducedbymagnitude
8+earthquakes(greatearthquakes
e.g.,9.3Indonesia,2004)
Mayalsobegeneratedbylarge
undersealandslidesorvolcanic
explosions
Travelacrossopenoceanatspeeds
of>700km/hr
Reachgreatheightsincoastalareas
withgentlyslopingseafloorand
funnelshapedbays
Planning
Location of faults
Character of Faults
Geologic materials and
their response to shaking