Module - 04

Sources of Data

Introduction

The task of data collection begins after a research problem

has been defined and research design/plan chalked out.

While deciding about the method of data collection to be

used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two
sources of data :Primary data
Secondary data

Types of Data
Data pertaining to human beings
Data relating to organization
Data pertaining to territories

Personal data or data related to

human beings consist of : Demographic and socio-economic characteristics

of individuals :Like age, social class, religion, education,

occupation, income, life style.
Behavioral variables :- Attitude, opinions,

awareness, knowledge etc

CONTD: Organizational data consists of : organization's origin

ownership
objectives
resources
functions
performance and growth.

Contd:Territorial Data are related to

geophysical characteristics
Population
Occupational pattern
Spatial division like villages, cities etc

Importance of data
It

forms the basis for testing the

hypotheses.
It provides facts and figures required
for constructing measurement scales
and tables.

Sources of data
Primary data :- are original sources from which

researcher directly collects data that has not been

previously collected.
E.g. Collection of data directly by the researcher on brand
awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other
aspects of consumer behavior from a sample of consumers
by interviewing them.
Primary data is an first hand information collected
through various methods such as:

Observation
Interviewing
Mailing etc

Contd: Secondary

data:- These are sources

containing data which have been collected
and compiled for another purpose
The secondary sources consists of readily
available data and already complied
statistical statements and reports whose
data may be used by researcher for their
studies.
E.G Census reports , annual reports,
financial statement , statistical statements,
Reports of govt dept.

Methods of collecting primary

data

Observation method
Interview Method
Through questionnaire method
Through schedules

Other methods like:

Warranty cards
Distributors audits
Consumer panels
Using mechanical devices
Through projective techniques
Depth interview
Content analysis

Observation method:
Under this method, the information is sought by the way of
investigators own direct observation without asking from
the respondent.
Main advantages : Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately
The information relates to current happenings, it is not
complicated by either the past behavior or future
intentions or attitudes
Less demanding of active co-operation

Types of observation method

Participant observation : the observer is a
part of phenomenon or group which is observed &
he acts as both an observer and a participants.
E.g. A study of the tribal customs by an
anthropologist by taking part in tribal activities.
Non-Participant observation :- The
observer stand apart and doesnt participate. This
method calls for skill in recording observation in
an unnoticed manner.

Contd: Direct observation:- This means observation of an

event personally by the observer when it takes

place. This method is flexible & allow the observer
to see and record subtle aspects of events &
behavior as they occur.
Indirect observation :- this does not involve the
physical appearance of the observer and the
recording is done by electronic devices

Interview Method :

Interviewing is one of the prominent method of data

collection.
It defined as a two-way systematic conversation between
an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining
information relevant to a specific study. It involves not
only conversation, but also learning from the respondents
gestures, facial expressions his environment.
Interviewing requires face-face contact or contact over
telephone . It is done by using structured schedule or an
unstructured schedule.

Types of interviews
Structured interview :This is an interview made with a detailed
standardized schedule.
The same questions are put to all the respondents
and in the same order.
Each questions is asked in the same way in each
interview, promoting measurement reliability.
This type of interview is used for large-scale
formalized surveys.

Contd:Unstructured interview : This is the least structured one. The interviewer

encourages the respondents to talk freely about a

given topic with a minimum of prompting or
guidance.
This type of interview , a detailed pre-planned
schedule is not used.
This interviewing is more useful in case study
rather than in survey.

Contd:Focused interview: Is meant to focus attention on the given experience

of the respondent & its effects.

Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide
the manner & sequence in which the questions
would be asked.
Such interview are used generally in the
development of hypotheses & constitute a major
type of unstructured interview.

Contd :Telephonic interview

It is a non-personal method of data
collection. It is used as a major
method or supplementary method
When the study requires responses
to 5 or 6 sample question

Contd:Group interview : A group consists of about six to eight

individuals with a common interest.
In this method of collecting primary
data in which a number of individuals
with a common interest interact with
each other.
The interviewer acts as the discussion
leader.

ContdPanel Method : The panel method is a method of data

collection, by which data is collected
from the same respondents at intervals
either by mail or by personal interview.
The period over which the panel
members are contacted for information
may spread over several months or
years.

Through questionnaire method

This method consists of a number of questions

printed in a definite order on a form or set of

form.
Types of questionnaire :
Structured or closed-end questionnaire
Unstructured or open-end questionnaire

Contd:Structure questionnaire : are those

questionnaire in which there are definite, concrete
and pre-determined questions. The questions are
presented with exactly the same wording and in the
same order to all respondents.
A highly structured questionnaire is one in which all
questions and answers are specified, and the
respondents comments in his own words.

Contd:E.g.
Which appeals you more while shopping FMCG
products?
Price [
]
Packing [
]
Advertisement [
]
Past experience [
]
Any other (please specify)

Contd : Unstructured questionnaire :- the interviewer is

provided with a general guide on the type of

information to be obtained, but the exact question
formulation largely depends on researcher and the
opinions are taken down by the respondents own
words to the extent possible.
E.g. What changes can be made to improve the work
place environment which motivates the employees?
_____________________________________________

Through schedules
This method of data collection is very much like

the collection of data through the questionnaire,

with little difference which lies in the fact that
schedules ( proforma containing a set of question)
are being filled in by the enumerators who are
specially appointed for the purpose.
These enumerators along with the schedule , go to
the respondents, put to them the questions from
the proforma and record the replies.

Other methods
Warranty cards :- are usually postal sized cards
which are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect
the information regarding their products. The information
sought is printed in the form of questions on the warranty
cards which is placed inside the package along with the
product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card
& post it back to the dealer.

Contd: Distributors audits :- are performed by distributors as

well as manufactures through their salesman at regular

intervals.
Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesman
and uses such information to estimate market size, market
share, seasonal purchasing pattern and so on.
E.g. In case of grocery store audit, a sample of stores is
visited periodically and data are recorded on the
inventories on hand either by observation or copying from
store records. This helps them to derivation of sales
estimate and compilation of sales trends.

Contd: Through projective techniques:-

For collection of data have been developed by

psychologists to use projection of respondents for
inferring about underlying motives, urges or
intentions which are such that the respondent
either resists to revel them.
In projection techniques respondent in supplying
information tends unconsciously to project his
own attitude or feeling on the subject under study.

Types of projective
techniques
Word

association tests
Sentence completion tests
Story completion test
Verbal projection test
Pictorial techniques :Thematic apperception test (TAT)

Contd: Word

association tests :- These tests

are used to extract information regarding such

words which have maximum association. In this
sort of test the respondent is asked to mention the
first word that comes to mind, ostensibly without
thinking, as the interviewer reads out each word
from a list.
E.g. A number of qualities of a product may be
listed and informants may be asked to write brand
names possessing one or more of these

Contd:Sentence completion tests : Under this method the informant is asked to

complete a sentence ( such as : persons who were

Khadi are..) to find the association of khadi
clothes with certain personality characteristics.
Several sentence of this type might be put to the
informant on the same subject.

Contd:Story completion test : These tests are a step further where in the

researcher mar contrive stories instead of

sentences and ask the informants to complete
them.
The respondent is given just enough of story to
focus his attention on a given subject and he is
asked to supply a conclusion to the story.

Contd:Verbal projection test : These are the test where in the respondent is asked

to comment on or to explain what other people do.

E.g. Why do people smoke? Answer may revel the

respondents own motive.

Contd:Pictorial techniques :

Thematic apperception test (TAT) : The TAT consists of a

set of picture (some of the pictures deal with the ordinary
day-to- day events while other may be ambiguous pictures
of unusual situation) that are shown to respondents who
are to describe what they think the pictures represent.

The replies of respondent constitute the basis for the

investigator to draw inference about their personality
structure, attitudes etc

CONTD:Depth interview :

This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at

studying the respondents opinion, emotions on the basis of
an interview guide.
This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as
extremely personal feelings and emotions.
This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to
encourage free expression of affectively charged
information.
The interviewer should totally avoid advising or showing
disagreement . He should use encouraging expression to
motivate the respondent to continue the narration.

CONTD:Content analysis: This is a method of data collection and

analysis. This is used for gathering data
from archival records , documents,
newspaper, letters, minutes of meetings etc.
The content of written materials serves as a
basis of inference.

Construction of a Questionnaire
& Design

Decide what information is wanted

Decide the type of questions
Decide the content of individual questions
Decide the wording of questions
Decide the sequence of questions
Decide the lay out
Make a preliminary draft and pretest it
Revise and prepare the final draft

Developing the Instrument

Design Strategy
Management-Research Question Hierarchy:
The management problem/question the
dilemma, stated in question form, that the
manager needs resolved
Research question's the fact-based translation
of the question the researcher must answer to
contribute to the solution of the mgmt question.

Contd:Investigative questions specific questions the

researcher must answer to provide sufficient

details & coverage of the research question. At
this level the researcher can move from the
general to specific question.
Measurement questions respondents must
answer if the researcher is needed to gather the
information & resolve the management
question by using the measurement technique.

Strategic Concerns of Instrument

Design
What type of data is needed to answer the

management question?
What communication approach will be used?
Should the questions be structured, unstructured,
or some combination?

Ways to Interact with the

Participant

Personal interview
Telephone
Mail

Appropriate Question Content:

Should this question be asked?

Is the question of proper scope and coverage?
Can the participant adequately answer this question, as
asked?
Will the participant willingly answer this question, as
asked?

Question Wording Criteria

Is the question stated in terms of a shared

vocabulary?
Does the question contain vocabulary with a single
meaning?
Does the question contain unsupported
assumptions?
Is the question correctly personalized?
Are adequate alternatives presented within the
question?

What Dictates
Your Response Strategy?
Characteristics of participants
Nature of the topic (s) being studied
Type of data needed
Your analysis plan

Types of Response Questions

Free-response
Dichotomous
Multiple-choice
Checklist
Rating
Ranking

Secondary Data
It

is the data already been collected by others which

may be published or unpublished. This data is
primary data for the agency that collects it and
becomes secondary data for someone else who uses
this data for his own purpose.

Methods of Secondary Data Collection

Various

publications of the central and state govt.

Various publication of foreign governments /
institutions
Technical & trade journals
Book, magazines and news-paper
Reports and publications of universities/institutions
Census reports
Reports prepared by research scholars
Researcher must ensure the reliability, suitability and
adequacy of secondary data