Design of Compression

Members

Chapter 03 A

INTRODUCTION
When a load tends to squeeze or
shorten a member, the stresses
produced are said to be compressive in
nature and the member is called a
P
compression member.

Figure 3.1. A Simple Compression Member

Examples are struts (short compression

members without chances of buckling),
eccentrically loaded columns, top chords
of trusses, bracing members, compression
flanges of beams and members that are
subjected simultaneously to bending and
compressive loads.
The
term column is usually used for
straight vertical member whose length is
considerably greater than the crosssectional dimensions.

Short vertical members subjected to

compressive loads are often called struts
or simply compression members.
There are two significant differences
between the behaviour of tension and
compression members, explained as
under:
1. There

are no chances of buckling in

tension members, whereas the strength of
a compression member most dominantly
depends on buckling phenomenon.

The tensile loads tend to hold a

member straight even if the member is
not initially in one line and is subjected
to simultaneous bending moments.
In contrast, the compressive loads
tend to bend the member out of the
plane
of
the
loads
due
to
imperfections, simultaneous bending
moment or even without all these.

Tests on majority of practical columns

show that they will fail at axial stresses
well below the elastic limit of the
column material because of their
tendency to buckle.
For these reasons, the strength of
compression members is reduced in
relation to the danger of buckling
depending on length of column, end
conditions
and
cross-sectional
dimensions.

The longer a column becomes for the

same cross-section the greater is its
tendency to buckle and the smaller is
the load it will support.
When the length of a compression
member increases relative to its crosssection, it may buckle at a lower load.
After buckling the load cannot be
sustained and the load capacity nearly
approaches zero.

The condition of a column at its critical

buckling load is that of an unstable
equilibrium as shown in Figure 3.2.

The
three
possible
states
of
equilibrium are shown in the same
figure.
Referring to part (a) of Figure 3.2, if the
ball is given movement and released,
it comes back to the original position
showing a Stable Equilibrium.
If ball is displaced and released in part
(b), it retains its new position but do
not return to its original position. This
condition
is
called
Neutral

The ball in part (c) is Unstable

because if the ball is displaced and
released it do not return back to its
original position and do not retain its
new position.
In the first case, the restoring forces
are greater than the forces tending to
upset the system.
Due
to
an
infinitesimal
small
displacement consistent with the
boundary conditions or due to small

At the same time, due to stress in the

material, restoring forces are also
developed to bring the column back to
its original shape.
If restoring force is greater than the
upsetting moment, the system is
stable but if restoring force is lesser
than the upsetting moment, the
system is unstable.
Right at the transition point when
restoring force is exactly equal to the

The
force
associated
with
this
condition is the critical or buckling
load.
Returning back to the behaviour of a
compression member, relatively rigid
end conditions of the member, not
allowing the member to rotate freely
at these points, reduce the effect of
length up to certain extent making the
load
carrying
capacity
a
little
improved.

Other factors, such as the eccentricity

of load application, imperfection of
column material, initial crookedness of
columns,
erection
stresses
and
residual stresses from manufacture,
help to buckle the column at a lesser
load.

2. The presence of rivet or bolt holes in

tension members reduces the area

available for resisting loads; but in
compression members the rivets or bolts
are assumed to fill the holes and the
entire gross area is available for resisting
load.
The ideal type of load on a column is a
concentric
load
and
the
member
subjected to this type of load is called
concentrically loaded column.

The load is distributed uniformly over

the entire cross-section with the centre
of gravity of the loads coinciding with
the centre of gravity of the columns.
Due to load patterns, the live load on
slabs and beams may not be
concentrically transferred to interior
columns.

Similarly, the dead and live loads

transferred to the exterior columns
are,
generally,
having
large
eccentricities, as the centre of gravity
of the loads will usually fall well on the
inner side of the column.
In practice, majority of the columns are
eccentrically
loaded
compression
members.

Slight initial crookedness, eccentricity

of
loads,
and
application
of
simultaneous transverse loads produce
significant bending moments as the
product of high axial loads (P)
multiplied with the eccentricity, e.
This moment, P x e, facilitates buckling
and reduces the load carrying capacity.
Eccentricity, e, may be relatively
smaller, but the product (P x e) may be
significantly larger.

The AISC Code of Standard Practice

specifies an acceptable upper limit on
the
out-of-plumbness
and
initial
crookedness equal to the length of the
member divided by 500.
Stub column is defined as a short
compression test specimen that
is
long
enough
to
allow
strain
measurements but short enough to
avoid elastic and plastic buckling.

RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stresses are stresses that
remain in a member after it has been
formed into a finished product.
These are always present in a member
even without the application of loads.
The magnitudes of these stresses are
considerably high and, in some cases,
are comparable to the yield stresses
(refer to Figure 3.4).

The causes of presence of residual

stresses are as under:
1. Uneven cooling which occurs after hot

rolling of structural shapes produces

thermal
stresses,
which
are
permanently stored in members.
The thicker parts cool at the end, and
try to shorten in length.

While
doing
so
they
produce
compressive stresses in the other parts
of the section and tension in them.
Overall magnitude of this tension and
compression
remain
equal
for
equilibrium.
In I-shape sections, after hot rolling,
the thick junction of flange to web
cools more slowly than the web and
flange tips.

Consequently, compressive residual

stress exists at flange tips and at middepth of the web (the regions that cool
fastest), while tensile residual stress
exists in the flange and the web at the
regions where they join.

2. Cold bending of members beyond their

elastic limit produce residual stresses
and strains within the members.
Similarly, during fabrication, if some
member having extra length is forced to
fit between other members, stresses
are
produced
in
the
associated
members.
3. Punching
of
holes
and
cutting
operations during fabrication also
produce residual stresses.

4. Welding also produces the stresses

due to uneven cooling after welding.
Welded part will cool at the end
inviting other parts to contract with it.
This produces compressive stresses in
parts away from welds and tensile
stresses in parts closer to welds.

SECTIONS USED FOR COLUMNS

Single angle, double angle, tee,
channel, W-section, pipe, square
tubing, and rectangular tubing may be
used as columns.
Different
combinations
of
these
structural shapes may also be
employed for compression members to
get built-up sections as shown in
Figure 3.5.

Built-up sections are better for

columns because the slenderness
ratios in various directions can be
controlled to get equal values in all the
directions.
This makes the column economical as
far as the material cost is concerned .
However the joining and labour cost is
generally higher for built-up sections.

The total cost of these sections may

become less for greater lengths.
The joining of various elements of a
built-up section is usually performed
by using lacing.

LIMITING SLENDERNESS RATIO

The slenderness ratio of compression
members should preferably not exceed
200.

INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS
When buckling occurs in columns, we
say that columns have become
unstable. The instability may be due to
local or overall buckling.

Local Instability
During local instability, the individual
parts or plate elements of crosssection buckle without overall buckling
of the column.
Width/thickness ratio of each part
gives the slenderness ratio (=b/t),
which controls the local buckling.

Local buckling should never be allowed

to occur before the overall buckling of
the member except in few cases like
web of a plate girder.
An Un-stiffened Element is a
projecting piece with one free edge
parallel to the direction of the
compressive force.
The example is half flange AB in figure
3.6.

A Stiffened Element is supported

along the two edges parallel to the
direction of the force.
The example is web AC in the same
figure.
For un-stiffened flange of figure, b is
equal to half width of flange (bf/2) and
t is equal to tf.

For stiffened web, h is the width of web

and tw is the thickness of web and the
corresponding value of or b/t ratio is
h/tw, which controls web local buckling.

Overall Instability
In case of overall instability, the column
buckles as a whole between the
supports or the braces about an axis
whose corresponding slenderness ratio
is bigger as shown in Figures 3.7 to 3.9.

Note:
Single angle sections may buckle about
their weak axis (z-axis shown in Design Aids
and Figure 3.10).
Calculate Le / rz to check the slenderness
ratio.
In general, all un-symmetric sections having
non-zero product moment of inertia (Ixy)
have a weak axis different from the y-axis.

Unsupported Length
It is the length of column between two
consecutive supports or braces denoted
by Lux or Luy in the x & y directions,
respectively.
A different value of unsupported length
may exist in different directions and
must be used to calculate the
corresponding slenderness ratios.

To calculate unsupported length of a

column in a particular direction, only the
corresponding supports and braces are
to be considered neglecting the bracing
preventing buckling in the other
direction.

Effective Length Of Column

The length of the column corresponding
to one-half sine wave of the buckled
shape or the length between two
consecutive inflection points or supports
after buckling is called the effective
length.

BUCKLING OF STEEL COLUMNS

Buckling is the sudden lateral bending
produced by axial loads due to initial
imperfection, out-of-straightness, initial
curvature, or bending produced by
simultaneous bending moments.
Chances of buckling are directly related
with the slenderness ratio KL/r and
hence there are three parameters
affecting buckling.
1. Effective

length

factor

(K),

which

2. Unbraced length of column (Lu), which

may be the unbraced length in strong

direction or unbraced length in weak
direction, whichever gives more answer
for KLu/r.
3. Radius of gyration (r), which may be rx

or ry (strong and weak direction) for

uniaxially or biaxially symmetrical
cross-sections and least radius of
gyration (rz) for un-symmetrical crosssections like angle sections.

a. Buckling

will take place about a

direction for which the corresponding
slenderness ratio is maximum.

b. For

unbraced compression members

consisting of angle section, the total
length and rz are used in the calculation
of KL/r ratio.

c. For steel braces, bracing is considered

the most effective if tension

produced in them, due to buckling.

is

d. Braces

that provide resistance by

bending are less effective and braces
having
compression
are
almost
ineffective because of their small xsections and longer lengths.

e. The brace is considered effective if its

other end is connected to a stable

structure, which is not undergoing
buckling simultaneously with the
braced member.

f. The

braces are usually provided

inclined to main members of steel
structures starting from mid-spans to
ends of the adjacent columns.

g. Because bracing is most effective in

tension, it is usually provided on both

sides to prevent buckling on either
side.
h. Bracing can be provided to prevent

buckling along weak axis. KL/r should

be calculated by using Ky, unbraced

i. Bracing

can also be provided to

prevent buckling along the strong axis.
KL/r in this case should be calculated
by using Kx, the unbraced length along
strong axis and rx.

j. The

end condition of a particular

unsupported length of a column at an
intermediate brace is considered a
hinge. The reason is that the rotation
becomes free at this point and only the
lateral movement is prevented.

EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR (K)

This factor gives the ratio of length of
half sine wave of deflected shape after
buckling to full-unsupported length of
column.
In other words, it is the ratio of effective
length to the unsupported length.
This depends upon the end conditions of
the column and the fact that whether
sidesway is permitted or not.

Greater the K-value, greater is the

effective length and slenderness ratio
and hence smaller is the buckling load.
K-value in case of no sidesway is
between 0.5 and 1.0, whereas, in case
of appreciable sidesway, it is always
greater than or equal
1.0
Le KLto
u
or

Le
K
Lu

Sidesway
Any appreciable lateral or sideward
movement of top of a vertical column
relative to its bottom is called
sidesway, sway or lateral drift.
If sidesway is possible, K-value increases
by a greater degree and column buckles
at a lesser load.
Sidesway in a frame takes place due to:
Lengths

of

different

columns

are

 Sections

of columns have different

cross-sectional properties.

Loads are un-symmetrical.

Lateral loads are acting.
I

2I

Figure 3.11. Causes of Sidesway in a Building Frame

Sidesway may be prevented in a frame

by:
Providing shear or partition walls.
Fixing the top of frame with adjoining

rigid structures.
Provision of properly designed lift well or

shear walls in a building, which may act

like backbone of the structure reducing
the lateral deflections.
Shear wall is a structural wall that resist
shear forces resulting from the applied

 Provision of lateral bracing, which may

be of following two types:

1. Diagonal bracing, and
2. Longitudinal bracing

Unbraced Frame is that frame in which

the resistance to lateral load is
provided by the bending resistance of
frame members and their connections
without any additional bracing.

K-Factor for Columns having

Well Defined End Conditions
Effective length factor and the buckled
shape of some example cases are given
in Figure 3.12.
Design Aids may be used for other end
conditions.

Page 103 on design aids

Make correction

K-Factor for Frame or Partially

Restrained Columns
Consider the example of column AB
shown in Figure 3.13. The ends are not
free to rotate and are also not perfectly
fixed.
Instead these ends are partially fixed
with the fixity determined by the ratio of
relative flexural stiffness of columns
meeting at a joint
to the flexural
stiffness of beams meeting at that joint.

This ratio is denoted by

and is
G or
determined for each end of the column
by using the expression given below:

EI L of columns

or G at each end
EI L of beams

Alignment charts, given in Design Aids,

are then used to find the effective length
factors.
The method to use these charts is
explained in Figure 3.14. (This Figure
does not give the actual values).
First step is to select the alignment chart
depending upon the presence or

absence
of the sidesway.
Next, points are marked on two outer
lines for values of G or
at end A and B

Page 104 on design aids

These points are then joined by a

straight edge and the K-value is read
from the central line according to its
graduations.

K-Value for Truss & Braced

Frames Members
The effective length factor, K, is
considered equal to 1.0 for members of
the truss & braced frames columns. In
case the value is to be used less than
one for frame columns, detailed buckling

ELASTIC BUCKLING LOAD FOR

LONG COLUMNS
A column with pin connections on both
ends is considered for the basic
derivation, as shown in the Figure 3.15.
The column has a length equal to l and
is subjected to an axial compressive
load, P.
Buckling of the column occurs at a
critical compressive load, Pcr.

The lateral displacement for the buckled

position at a height y from the base is u.
The bending moment at this point D is
M = Pcr x u

(1)

This bending moment is function of the

deflection unlike the double integration
method of structural analysis where it is
independent of deflection.
The equation of the elastic curve is
given by the Euler-Bernoulli Equation,

d 2u
EI 2 - M
dy

( II )

or

d 2u
EI 2 Pcr u 0
dy

or

d 2u Pcr

u0
2
dy
EI

Let

P cr
=C 2
EI

d 2u
2

C
u0
2
dy

(III)

where C is a constant (IV)

(V)

The solution of this differential equation

is:
u = A cos (C x y) + B sin (C x y)
(VI)
where, A and B are the constants of
integration.
Boundary Condition No. 1:
Aty = 0,

u=0

0 = A cos (0) + B sin (0)

u = B sin (C x y)

A=0
(VII)

Boundary Condition No. 2:

Aty = l,

u=0

From Eq. (VII):

0 = B sin (Cl)

Either B = 0
(VIII)

or

sin (Cl) = 0

If B = 0, the equation becomes u = 0,

giving un-deflected condition. Only the
second alternate is left for the buckled
shape.

sin( Cl ) = sin
sin = 0

Pcr
l =0
EI

(IX)

for = 0, , 2 ,3 ,......(radians )
or n

where n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

(X)

Hence from Eq. IX:

Pcr
l = n
EI
n 2 2 EI
Pcr =
l2

(XI)

The smallest value of Pcr is for n = 1, and

is given below:

 2 EI
Pcr = 2
l

(XII)

Pcr =

(XIII)

For other columns with different end

conditions, we have to replace l by the
effective length,
le = Kl.
2 EI
( Kl )

The same expression may be converted

in terms of area of cross-section and
radius of gyration using the expression
I=Ar2.

 2 EAr 2
Pcr =
( Kl ) 2
2 EA
=
2 = Fe A
( Kl r )
2E
and Fe =
( Kl r ) 2

(XIV)
(XV)

Equations XII and XIV give the Euler

elastic critical buckling load for long
columns. It is important to note that the
buckling load determined from Euler
equation is independent of the strength
of steel used.

The most important factor on which this

load depends is the Kl/r term called the
slenderness ratio.
Euler critical buckling load is inversely
proportional to the square of the
slenderness ratio.
With the increase in slenderness ratio,
the buckling strength of a column
drastically reduces.

In the above Equations:

Kl/r

= slenderness ratio

Pcr

= Eulers critical elastic buckling

load
Fe

Eulers elastic critical buckling

stress
Long compression members fail by
elastic buckling and short compression
members may be loaded until the
material yield or perhaps even goes into

However, in the vast majority of usual

situations failure occurs by buckling
after a portion of cross-section has
yielded.
This is known as inelastic buckling.
This variation in column behavior with
change of slenderness ratio is shown in
Figure 3.16.

Compression Yielding

Fy

D
C

Inelastic Buckling (straight line or a parabolic line

Is assumed
Eulers Buckling (Elastic Buckling)

Fcr

Elastic Buckling

0.4 Fy
approximately

Rc

Short
Columns

Intermediate
Columns

KL/r (R)

Long
Columns

(KL/r)max

Questions??????????