Chapter 5

The Working Cell

PowerPoint Lectures for

Campbell Essential Biology, Fourth Edition
Eric Simon, Jane Reece, and Jean Dickey
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Third Edition
Eric Simon, Jane Reece, and Jean Dickey

Lectures by Chris C. Romero, updated by Edward J. Zalisko

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Biology and Society:

Natural Nanotechnology
Cells control their chemical environment using
Energy
Enzymes
The plasma membrane

Cell-based nanotechnology may be used to power microscopic

robots.

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Figure 5.00

SOME BASIC ENERGY CONCEPTS

Energy makes the world go around.
But what is energy?

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Conservation of Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity to perform work.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
Potential energy is stored energy.

Animation: Energy Concepts

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On the platform,
the diver has more
potential energy.

Climbing the steps

converts kinetic
energy of muscle
movement to
potential energy.

Diving converts
potential energy
to kinetic energy.

In the water, the

diver has less
potential energy.

Figure 5.1

 Machines and organisms can transform kinetic energy to potential

energy and vice versa.
In all such energy transformations, total energy is conserved.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
This is the principle of conservation of energy.

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Entropy
Every energy conversion releases some randomized energy in the
form of heat.
Heat is a
Type of kinetic energy
Product of all energy conversions

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 Scientists use the term entropy as a measure of disorder, or

randomness.
All energy conversions increase the entropy of the universe.

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Chemical Energy
Molecules store varying amounts of potential energy in the
arrangement of their atoms.
Organic compounds are relatively rich in such chemical energy.

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 Living cells and automobile engines use the same basic process to
make chemical energy do work.

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Fuel rich in
chemical
energy

Energy conversion

Waste products
poor in chemical
energy

Heat
energy
Gasoline

Combustion
Kinetic energy
of movement

Oxygen

Carbon dioxide

Water

Energy conversion in a car

Heat
energy

Cellular
respiration
Food

Oxygen

ATP

Energy for cellular work

Carbon dioxide

Water

Energy conversion in a cell

Figure 5.2

 Cellular respiration is the energy-releasing chemical breakdown

of fuel molecules that provides energy for cells to do work.
Humans convert about 40% of the energy in food to useful work,
such as the contraction of muscles.

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Food Calories
A calorie is the amount of energy that raises the temperature of
one gram of water by 1 degree Celsius.
Food Calories are kilocalories, equal to 1,000 calories.

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Food

Food Calories

Cheeseburger

295

Spaghetti with sauce (1 cup)

241

Baked potato (plain, with skin)

220

Activity

Food Calories consumed per

hour by a 150-pound person*

Running (7min/mi)

979

Dancing (fast)

510

Bicycling (10 mph)

490

Fried chicken (drumstick)

193

Swimming (2 mph)

Bean burrito

189

Walking (3 mph)

Pizza with pepperoni (1 slice)

181

Dancing (slow)

Peanuts (1 ounce)

166

Playing the piano

73

Driving a car

61

Apple
Garden salad (2 cups)

81
56

Popcorn (plain, 1 cup)

31

Broccoli (1 cup)

25

(a) Food Calories (kilocalories) in

various foods

Sitting (writing)

408
245
204

28

*Not including energy necessary for basic functions, such

as breathing and heartbeat

(b) Food Calories (kilocalories) we

burn in various activities

Figure 5.3

Food

Food Calories

Cheeseburger

295

Spaghetti with sauce (1 cup)

241

Baked potato (plain, with skin)

220

Fried chicken (drumstick)

193

Bean burrito

189

Pizza with pepperoni (1 slice)

181

Peanuts (1 ounce)

166

Apple
Garden salad (2 cups)

81
56

Popcorn (plain, 1 cup)

31

Broccoli (1 cup)

25

(a) Food Calories (kilocalories) in various foods

Figure 5.3a

Activity

Food Calories consumed per

hour by a 150-pound person*

Running (7min/mi)

979

Dancing (fast)

510

Bicycling (10 mph)

490

Swimming (2 mph)

408

Walking (3 mph)

245

Dancing (slow)

204

Playing the piano

73

Driving a car

61

Sitting (writing)

28

*Not including energy necessary for basic functions,

such as breathing and heartbeat

(b) Food Calories (kilocalories) we burn in various activities

Figure 5.3b

 The energy of calories in food is burned off by many activities.

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ATP AND CELLULAR WORK

Chemical energy is
Released by the breakdown of organic molecules during cellular
respiration
Used to generate molecules of ATP

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 ATP
Acts like an energy shuttle
Stores energy obtained from food
Releases it later as needed

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The Structure of ATP

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Consists of adenosine plus a tail of three phosphate groups
Is broken down to ADP and a phosphate group, releasing energy

Blast Animation: Structure of ATP

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Energy
Triphosphate
Adenosine

ATP

Diphosphate
Adenosine

ADP

Phosphate
(transferred to
another molecule)

Figure 5.4

Phosphate Transfer
ATP energizes other molecules by transferring phosphate groups.
This energy helps cells perform
Mechanical work
Transport work
Chemical work

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Motor
protein

ATP

ADP

ADP

ADP

ADP

Protein moved
(a) Motor protein performing mechanical work
Transport
protein

Solute
P

ATP

Solute transported
(b) Transport protein performing transport work

P
ATP

Y
Reactants
Product made
(c) Chemical reactants performing chemical work

Figure 5.5

Motor
protein

ATP

ADP

ADP

Protein moved
(a) Motor protein performing mechanical work

Figure 5.5a

Transport
protein

Solute
P

ATP

ADP

Solute transported
(b) Transport protein performing transport work

Figure 5.5b

P
ATP

ADP

Y
Reactants
Product made
(c) Chemical reactants performing chemical work

Figure 5.5c

The ATP Cycle

Cellular work spends ATP.
ATP is recycled from ADP and a phosphate group through cellular
respiration.
A working muscle cell spends and recycles about 10 million ATP
molecules per second.

Blast Animation: ATP/ADP Cycle

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ATP

Cellular respiration:
chemical energy
harvested from
fuel molecules

Energy for
cellular work
ADP

Figure 5.6

ENZYMES
Metabolism is the total of all chemical reactions in an organism.
Most metabolic reactions require the assistance of enzymes,
proteins that speed up chemical reactions.

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Activation Energy
Activation energy
Activates the reactants
Triggers a chemical reaction

Enzymes lower the activation energy for chemical reactions.

Blast Animation: How Enzymes Work: Activation Energy

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Activation
energy barrier

Reactant

Energy level

Energy level

Enzyme

Reactant

Products
(a) Without enzyme

Activation
energy barrier
reduced by
enzyme

Products
(b) With enzyme

Figure 5.7

Activation
energy barrier

Energy level

Reactant

Products
(a) Without enzyme
Figure 5.7a

Enzyme

Activation
energy barrier
reduced by
enzyme

Energy level

Reactant

Products

(b) With enzyme

Figure 5.7b

The Process of Science:

Can Enzymes Be Engineered?
Observation: Genetic sequences suggest that many of our genes
were formed through a type of molecular evolution.
Question: Can laboratory methods form new enzymes through
artificial selection?
Hypothesis: An artificial process could modify the gene that
codes for lactase into a new gene with a new function.

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 Experiment: Many copies of the lactase gene were randomly

mutated and tested for new activities.
Results: Directed evolution produced a new enzyme with a novel
function.

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Gene for lactase

Gene duplicated and
mutated at random
Mutated genes
(mutations shown in orange)

Mutated genes screened

by testing new enzymes
Genes coding for enzymes
that show new activity

Genes duplicated and

mutated at random

Genes coding for enzymes

that do not show new activity

Ribbon model showing the polypeptide

chains of the enzyme lactase

Mutated genes screened

by testing new enzymes
After seven rounds, some
genes code for enzymes that can
efficiently perform new activity.

Figure 5.8

Gene for lactase

Gene duplicated and
mutated at random
Mutated genes
(mutations shown in orange)

Mutated genes screened

by testing new enzymes
Genes coding for enzymes
that show new activity

Genes coding for enzymes

that do not show new activity

Genes duplicated and

mutated at random
Mutated genes screened
by testing new enzymes
After seven rounds, some
genes code for enzymes that can
efficiently perform new activity.

Figure 5.8a

Ribbon model showing the polypeptide

chains of the enzyme lactase

Figure 5.8b

Induced Fit
Every enzyme is very selective, catalyzing a specific reaction.

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 Each enzyme recognizes a substrate, a specific reactant

molecule.
The active site fits to the substrate, and the enzyme changes shape
slightly.
This interaction is called induced fit.

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 Enzymes can function over and over again, a key characteristic of

enzymes.

Animation: How Enzymes Work

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Active site

Sucrase can accept a

molecule of its substrate.

Enzyme
(sucrase)

Figure 5.9-1

Substrate (sucrose)
Active site

Sucrase can accept a

molecule of its substrate.
Substrate binds
to the enzyme.

Enzyme
(sucrase)

Figure 5.9-2

Substrate (sucrose)
Active site

Sucrase can accept a

molecule of its substrate.
Substrate binds
to the enzyme.

Enzyme
(sucrase)

H2O

The enzyme
catalyzes the
chemical reaction.

Figure 5.9-3

Substrate (sucrose)
Active site

Sucrase can accept a

molecule of its substrate.
Substrate binds
to the enzyme.

Enzyme
(sucrase)

Fructose
H2O
Glucose
The products
are released.

The enzyme
catalyzes the
chemical reaction.

Figure 5.9-4

Enzyme Inhibitors
Enzyme inhibitors can prevent metabolic reactions by binding to
the active site.

Blast Animation: Enzyme Regulation: Competitive Inhibition

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(a) Enzyme and substrate

binding normally

Substrate
Active site

(b) Enzyme inhibition by

a substrate imposter

Enzyme
Substrate
Inhibitor
Active site

Enzyme
(c) Enzyme inhibition by
a molecule that causes
the active site to change
shape

Active site

Substrate

Inhibitor
Enzyme
Figure 5.10

Substrate
Active site

Enzyme
(a) Enzyme and substrate binding normally

Figure 5.10a

Inhibitor

Substrate

Active site

Enzyme
(b) Enzyme inhibition by a substrate imposter

Figure 5.10b

Substrate
Active site

Inhibitor
Enzyme
(c) Enzyme inhibition by a molecule that
causes the active site to change shape

Figure 5.10c

 Other enzyme inhibitors

Bind at a remote site
Change the enzymes shape
Prevent the enzyme from binding to its substrate

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 Some products of a reaction may inhibit the enzyme required for

its production.
This is called feedback regulation.
It prevents the cell from wasting resources.

Many antibiotics work by inhibiting enzymes of disease-causing

bacteria.

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MEMBRANE FUNCTION
Working cells must control the flow of materials to and from the
environment.
Membrane proteins perform many functions.
Transport proteins
Are located in membranes
Regulate the passage of materials into and out of the cell

Animation: Membrane Selectivity

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Enzymatic activity
Cytoplasm

Fibers of
extracellular
matrix
Cell signaling

Attachment to
the cytoskeleton
and extracellular
matrix

Cytoplasm

Cytoskeleton
Transport

Intercellular
joining

Cell-cell
recognition

Figure 5.11

Passive Transport: Diffusion across Membranes

Molecules contain heat energy that causes them to vibrate and
wander randomly.
Diffusion is the tendency for molecules of any substance to
spread out into the available space.

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 Passive transport is the diffusion of a substance across a

membrane without the input of energy.
Diffusion is an example of passive transport.
Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient, a region
in which the substances density changes.

Blast Animation: Diffusion

Animation: Diffusion
Blast Animation: Passive Diffusion Across a Membrane
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Molecules of dye

Net diffusion

Membrane

Net diffusion

Equilibrium

(a) Passive transport of one type of molecule

Net diffusion
Net diffusion

Net diffusion
Net diffusion

(b) Passive transport of two types of molecules

Equilibrium
Equilibrium
Figure 5.12

Molecules of dye

Net diffusion

Membrane

Net diffusion

Equilibrium

(a) Passive transport of one type of molecule

Figure 5.12a

Net diffusion

Net diffusion

Net diffusion

Net diffusion

Equilibrium

Equilibrium

(b) Passive transport of two types of molecules

Figure 5.12b

 Some substances do not cross membranes spontaneously.

These substances can be transported via facilitated diffusion.
Specific transport proteins act as selective corridors.
No energy input is needed.

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Osmosis and Water Balance

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
is osmosis.

Animation: Osmosis
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Hypotonic solution

Hypertonic solution

Sugar
molecule
Selectively
permeable
membrane

Osmosis

Figure 5.13-1

Hypotonic solution

Hypertonic solution

Isotonic solutions

Osmosis
Sugar
molecule
Selectively
permeable
membrane

Osmosis

Figure 5.13-2

 A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solute.

A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solute.
An isotonic solution has an equal concentration of solute.

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Water Balance in Animal Cells

Osmoregulation is the control of water balance within a cell or
organism.
Most animal cells require an isotonic environment.

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Water Balance in Plant Cells

Plant have rigid cell walls.
Plant cells require a hypotonic environment, which keeps these
walled cells turgid.

Video: Plasmolysis
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Animal cell
H2O

H2O

H2O

Normal

Lysing

H 2O

Flaccid (wilts)
(a) Isotonic
solution

Shriveled
Plasma
membrane

Plant cell
H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid
(b) Hypotonic
solution

H 2O

Shriveled
(c) Hypertonic
solution
Figure 5.14

Animal cell
H2O

H2O

Normal
Plant cell
H 2O

H2O

Flaccid (wilts)
(a) Isotonic
solution

Figure 5.14a

H2O

Lysing

H2O

Turgid
(b) Hypotonic
solution

Figure 5.14b

H 2O

Shriveled
Plasma
membrane

H 2O

Shriveled
(c) Hypertonic
solution

Figure 5.14c

 As a plant cell loses water,

It shrivels.
Its plasma membrane may pull away from the cell wall in the process of
plasmolysis, which usually kills the cell.

Video: Turgid Elodea

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Figure 5.15

Active Transport: The Pumping of Molecules

Across Membranes
Active transport requires energy to move molecules across a
membrane.

Blast Animation: Active Transport: Sodium-Potassium Pump

Animation: Active Transport
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Lower solute concentration

Solute

ATP
Higher solute concentration

Figure 5.16-1

Lower solute concentration

Solute

ATP
Higher solute concentration

Figure 5.16-2

Exocytosis and Endocytosis: Traffic of Large

Molecules
Exocytosis is the secretion of large molecules within vesicles.

Blast Animation: Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Animation: Exocytosis and Endocytosis Introduction
Animation: Exocytosis
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Outside of cell

Plasma
membrane
Cytoplasm

Figure 5.17

 Endocytosis takes material into a cell within vesicles that bud

inward from the plasma membrane.

Animation: Phagocytosis
Animation: Pinocytosis
Animation: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
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Figure 5.18

 There are three types of endocytosis:

Phagocytosis (cellular eating); a cell engulfs a particle and packages it
within a food vacuole
Pinocytosis (cellular drinking); a cell gulps droplets of fluid by
forming tiny vesicles
Receptor-mediated endocytosis; a cell takes in very specific molecules

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The Role of Membranes in Cell Signaling

The plasma membrane helps convey signals between
Cells
Cells and their environment

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 Receptors on a cell surface trigger signal transduction pathways

that
Relay the signal
Convert it to chemical forms that can function within the cell

Animation: Overview of Cell Signaling

Animation: Signal Transduction Pathways
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Outside of cell

Receptor
protein

Reception

Cytoplasm

Transduction

Proteins of signal transduction pathway

Epinephrine
(adrenaline)
from adrenal
glands

Response
Hydrolysis
of glycogen
releases
glucose for
energy

Plasma membrane

Figure 5.19

Outside of cell
Reception
Receptor
protein

Cytoplasm
Transduction

Proteins of signal transduction

pathway
Epinephrine
(adrenaline)
from adrenal
glands

Response
Hydrolysis
of glycogen
releases
glucose for
energy

Plasma membrane

Figure 5.19a

Evolution Connection:
The Origin of Membranes
Phospholipids
Are key ingredients of membranes
Were probably among the first organic compounds that formed before life
emerged
Self-assemble into simple membranes

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Figure 5.20

Energy for cellular work

Adenosine

ATP
cycle

Adenosine

ATP

ADP

Adenosine
triphosphate

Adenosine
diphosphate

Energy from
organic fuel

P
Phosphate

Figure 5.UN01

Activation energy

Enzyme added

Reactant

Reactant

Products

Products

Figure 5.UN02

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
Passive Transport
(requires no energy)

Active Transport
(requires energy)

Lower solute concentration

Higher solute
concentration

Lower water concentration

(higher solute concentration)

Solute

Water

Solute

Solute

Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Higher water concentration
Higher solute concentration
(lower solute concentration)
Solute

ATP
Lower solute
concentration

Figure 5.UN03

Exocytosis

Endocytosis

Figure 5.UN04