Basic Aircraft Instrumentat Ion: Shah Sultan

Basic Aircraft
Instrumentat
ion
Shah Sultan
Lesson Objectives
To learn the operating principles of the aircraft
instruments.
To study how to interpret the aircrafts
instruments.
To learn how to overcome instrument errors.
Topics
I. Properties of the Atmosphere
II. Pitot-Static Instruments
III. Gyroscopic Instruments
IV. Magnetic Compass
Why do we need to study BAI?

1. Proficiency in interpreting aircraft
instruments makes you a safer pilot.
2. Precision in flying.
3. Preparation for basic instrument flight
lesson.
4. Preparation for your instrument rating (IR).

The Atmosphere
a layer of surrounding gasses that is retained by the

Earths gravity.
Characteristics of Air
Mass
Pressure
Density
Temperature

The Atmosphere
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
Air is a perfectly dry gas.

Temperature at sea level is 15oC (59oF).
Standard temperature lapse rate is 2oC per 1,000 feet altitude gain.
Standard sea level pressure is 29.92 in Hg, or 1013.2 hPa.
Standard pressure is 1 inch of mercury per 1,000 feet altitude
gain.

The Atmosphere

- Also referred to as Pressure Instruments because they rely on the
different air pressures acting on the airplane.
Airspeed Indicator
Vertical Speed
Indicator (VSI)
Altimeter

Different Air Pressures
Static Pressure
- Air pressure exerted all around
us, in equal directions.
Dynamic Pressure
- Pressure exerted by air resisting
the motion of a solid object through
it.

Static Pressure
Static Port
A port located outside the fuselage that measures static pressure.
Located in an area which is free of aerodynamic disturbances.

Static Pressure
Dynamic
Pressure
Pitot Tube
Elongated tube with a hole oriented into the relative wind.
Collects air molecules, which translates into amount of dynamic
pressure.
Measures total pressure.
Ram air hole

Drain hole

Pitot-Static System
The combination of the pitot
tube, static port, alternate
sources, accessories and the
instruments connected to it.

Airspeed Indicator
Displays the speed of the
airplane as it passes through
the air.
Measures the difference
between total pressure and
static pressure.
Connected to both the pitot tube
and static port.
The only instrument which uses
the pitot tube.

Airspeed Indicator
Parts:
1. Pointer/Needle
2. Numbering
Miles per hour

Knots
3. Color Coding
*V-speeds denotes important speed
limitations.

Airspeed Indicator
Color Coding
1. White Arc denotes the flap
operating range
Lower limit: VS0 (Stall speed in dirty
configuration)
Upper limit: VFE (Maximum flap
operating speed)

Airspeed Indicator
Color Coding
2. Green Arc Normal operating range
Lower limit: VS1 (Stall speed in clean
configuration)
Upper limit: VNO (Max. structural
cruising speed)

Airspeed Indicator
Color Coding
3. Yellow Arc Caution speed range
Lower limit: VNO (Max. structural
cruising speed)
Upper limit: VNE (Never exceed
speed)
4. Red Line VNE (Never exceed
speed)

Airspeed Indicator
Color Coding
Not color-coded speeds:
VA Design maneuvering speed. Speed
at which when full control deflection
is made, the aircraft will not be
overstressed
VLE Maximum landing gear extended
speed. This is the maximum speed
at which it is safe to fly a retractable
gear aircraft with the landing gear
extended.

Airspeed Indicator
Errors
1. Position Error Caused by aerodynamic disturbances which change
the angle at which air enters the pitot tube.
2. Lag Error Caused by internal friction inside the instrument.
3. Blockage of the pitot tube Reduces the number of air molecules
entering the pitot-static system.
4. Blockage of the static port will cause the pressure to be trapped in
a particular line of the pitot-static system.

Airspeed Indicator
Types of Airspeed
1. Indicated airspeed (IAS) the reading you get directly from the
airspeed indicator.
2. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) indicated airspeed corrected for
installation and instrument errors.
3. True airspeed (TAS) Calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and
non-standard temperature. Represents the true speed of your
airplane through the air.
4. Groundspeed (GS) represents the actual speed of your airplane
over the ground.

Altimeter
- Senses pressure changes and displays altitude in feet.

Altimeter
The altimeter measures static

pressure and interprets this as
altitude.

Altimeter
Parts of the Altimeter:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Aneroid Wafer
Internal gearing
Numbering
Hundreds hand
Thousands hand
Ten Thousands hand
Crosshatch
Kollsman Window

Altimeter

Altimeter
Kollsman Window
Tells the altimeter what the static
pressure is at sea level (0 feet).
An incorrect altimeter setting will
indicate an erroneous altitude on the
altimeter.
If you change your altimeter setting from
29.92 to 28.92, your altimeter will
indicate:
A.) 1,000 feet higher
B.) 1,000 feet lower
C.) 100 feet lower

Altimeter
-
Senses pressure changes and displays altitude in feet.
Types of Altitude
1. Indicated altitude altitude read directly off the face of the
altimeter.
2. Pressure Altitude altitude read directly off the face of the altimeter
when pressure is set to ISA.
3. Density Altitude pressure altitude corrected for non-standard
temperature.
4. True Altitude height of the airplane above sea level.
5. Absolute Altitude height of the above the Earths surface over
which it is flying.

Altimeter
Errors
1. Pressure Errors
When flying from areas of high to low pressure without adjusting for
the new pressure on the Kollsman window, Your true altitude is
actually lower than what you are reading!
From high to low,

look out below!

Altimeter
Errors
2. Temperature Errors
When flying from areas of high temperature to that of low
temperature, your true altitude is lower than what you are reading!

Altimeter
Q Codes
QNH Altimeter set to measure altitude from sea level
QFE Field elevation.
QNE Altimeter setting used when flying above the transition layer.
Altimeter set to 29.92 in or 1013 hPa
1. The altimeter looks for PRESSURE.
2. Always make sure your altimeter is set to the correct setting!
3. If no pressure information is available on departure, set altimeter to
the field elevation
4. If en route, you may use a pressure setting of a field within 50 nm
of your position

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
- Displays how fast you are ascending or descending.

Measures vertical speed based on
differential pressures between 2 chambers
inside the instrument
Parts:
1. Diaphragm
2. Capsule
3. Gearing

1. Needle
2. Numbering
Hundreds of Feet
Errors
Lag Error 6-9 seconds of delay until
the actual rate of climb or descent
is shown.
Dont look on the VSI to maintain
altitude. Look outside or refer to the
altimeter!

Pitot-Static System Problems
1. Pitot blockage
Clogged ram air hole

- ASI will indicate to zero
Clogged drain hole
- No effect
Both ram air and drain holes
clogged
- ASI will act like an
altimeter.

2. Clogged static port
a. VSI returns to zero
b. Altimeter is frozen
c. Airspeed indicator:
- Climbs increase
- Descents decrease

Avoiding pitot-static system problems
Keep the pitot tube cover on until just before

startup.
Check the pitot tube
Check the static port
Check the ASI on takeoff roll and announce
airspeed alive
Use pitot heat when operating in visible
moisture
Avoid flight in icing conditions
Always check the weather

Engage pitot and/or static port heating

systems Use alternate static air ports (if
applicable)
Break the VSI (the least important
instrument) to let static pressure from inside
the aircraft into the system.
If airspeed indicator is inaccurate, or
inoperative, maintain a known pitch and
power setting that will give a safe airspeed.

Aeroperu Flight No. 603

October 2, 1996

A gyroscope is basically a rotating wheel, mounted so that its axis is
free to move in one or more directions.
Characteristics
Rigidity in Space
Once the gyroscope is spinning, it tends
to remain in a fixed position in space
and resists external forces applied to it.

A gyroscope is basically a rotating wheel, mounted so that its axis is
free to move in one or more directions.
Characteristics
Precession
If a force is applied to the gyroscope,
the resultant force would act 90o ahead
of the plane of rotation.

Sources of Power
1. Engine-Driven Vacuum System The engine drives a vacuum pump
which accelerates air and rotates the gyros.
- Inaccurate at low power settings.
2. Venturi-Driven Vacuum System - Outside air enters, is accelerated
through a venturi and rotates the gyros. Highly dependent on
airspeed
3. Electrically Powered System Electrical power turns the gyros.
Commonly used alongside engine-driven vacuum systems to
provide redundancy in case of failure

Sources of Power
Suction Gauge
-Indicates the functionality the gyro system.
Low Pressure inaccurate indication
Green Range normal operation
High Pressure damage to gyros
Cessna 152 Normal operating range of your suction
gauge is 4.6 5.4 in Hg.
Heading Indicator
Attitude Indicator
Turn Coordinator

Heading Indicator
- When properly set, the Heading Indicator is your primary source for
heading information.
Parts of the HI
1. Aircraft Symbol
2. Compass Rose
3. Heading Bug
4. 45 Tick Marks
5. Adjustment Knob

Heading Indicator
- When properly set, the Heading Indicator is your primary source for
heading information relative to the North.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Directional Gyros are NOT north seeking.

Align the DGs with the magnetic compass before flight.
DGs are subject to gyroscopic precession.
Cross-check and realign the gyros every 15 minutes with the magnetic
compass.
Acceptable precession rate is 3 degrees every 15 minutes.

Attitude Indicator
- Shows the relationship between the wings, and aircraft nose in
relation to the horizon.
Parts of the AI
1. Aircraft Symbol
2. Horizon
3. Pitch Scale
4. Banking Scale
5. Bank Angle Pointer
6. Caging Knob

Attitude Indicator

Attitude Indicator
Operation
Gyro spins horizontally
Movement of the gimbals is
displayed as a movement of the
horizon on the instrument face.

Attitude Indicator
Attitude Indicator does NOT indicate direction of flight,

simply, where your nose is pointed and how your wings are
positioned.
In extreme attitudes, the AI gyro may tumble out of axis, and
will take a certain amount of time to recover.
Once level flight has been established, align the miniature
airplane with the horizon bar.

Turn Coordinator
- senses rate of turn (yaw), roll rate and coordination of the airplane.
Turn and Slip Indicator

Turn and Slip Indicator
- senses rate of turn (yaw) and coordination only. Commonly used in
old aircraft
Parts
1. Needle
2. Turn and Level indices
3. Inclinometer

Turn Coordinator
- senses rate of turn (yaw), roll rate and coordination of the airplane.
Parts
1. Miniature airplane
2. Turn and Level indices
3. Inclinometer
4. Gyro
5. Gimbals
6. Gearing

Turn Coordinator
The standard rate turn is a turn that changes its heading 3 degrees
every second. Also known as rate 1 turn.
180 degree turn is made in 1 minute
360 degree turn is made in 2 minutes
Slip rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank
Skid rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank

Turn Coordinator
Always STEP ON THE BALL!
Most modern-day TCs are
electrically powered Check the
POH, or the instrument face.
If TCs are electrically powered, a
failure will be indicated by a failure
flag.
The inclinometer does not rely on
suction pressure or electrical power
Rate 1 turns are used in advanced
phases of flight training.

Gyroscopic System Operational Notes
Moving the airplane when gyros are not at full RPM can
damage the gyros and lead to inaccurate instruments
After start-up, Wait until the gyros are fully spinned until you
taxi out the airplane.
After shutdown, wait until the gyros are silent and fully
spinned down until you move the airplane.
How do you know if it has spinned up or down? Listen!
Flying with excessively high vacuum pressure may damage the
gyros.

- it is your primary source of direction information.
- it is the only direction-seeking instrument in your cockpit.
- points to the Magnetic North.
Parts:
1. Pointer
2. Compass
3. Magnetic Deviation Card

Magnetic north is different from
True North
True North is the geographic
north, drawing a line 90 degrees
perpendicular from the equator
towards the North.
Magnetic North is which the
compass references to.
This difference is called the
magnetic variation.

Magnetic Variation - the angular difference between true north and
magnetic north at any particular point of the Earth.
Variation to the East
If a map indicates an E variation,
subtract the variation from the TRUE
HEADING.
Variation to the West
If a map indicates a W variation, add
the variation to the TRUE HEADING.
East is Least, West is Best

Magnetic Deviation
Interference caused by metallic objects in the aircraft panel.
Cause a certain amount of inaccuracy in the magnetic
compass.
A Compass Card is provided to show correction for errors

Magnetic Dip
-the angle made by a compass needle with the horizontal at any
point on the Earth's surface.

Acceleration and Deceleration Errors
When flying on an easterly or westerly heading, acceleration and
deceleration errors are most prominent.
When accelerating:
The compass indicates a turn to the north
When decelerating:
The compass indicates a turn to the south
Remember the mnemonic: ANDS

Turning Errors
When making turns towards the north or
south, the compass tends to lag or lead ahead
of actual heading.
NORTH
From a North heading, the compass will initially
indicate a turn to the opposite direction.
From an East or West heading turning to a
heading of north, there is no error as you begin
the turn, but the compass increasingly lags
behind the airplanes actual heading as you
approach the north heading.
Undershoots
North

Turning Errors
When making turns towards the north or
south, the compass tends to lag or lead ahead
of actual heading.
SOUTH
From a heading of south towards an east or
west heading, the compass will show the
proper direction of the turn but its rate is
actually faster.
From a heading of east or west to south, the
compass will indicate correctly at the start of
the turn, but will increasingly lead the
airplanes actual heading.
Undershoots
North
Overshoots
South

Detecting Failures
Bubbles inside the Magnetic Compass
Liquid level in the compass is below standard
There is a leak in the compass housing
There is no movement on the compass face when turning.

Operational Notes
Compass moves in the opposite direction of the turn.
- If you turn to the right, it will rotate to the left
- Fly away from the heading you want to achieve.
Always calculate for magnetic variation
Check the compass card for magnetic deviation
Compass is only 100% accurate in straight and level, unaccelerated flight.
Keep metallic objects or magnets away from the MC.
Electronic Flight Display (EFD)

Basic Aircraft Instrumentat Ion: Shah Sultan

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Basic Aircraft

Why do we need to study BAI?

I. Properties of the Atmosphere

a layer of surrounding gasses that is retained by the

I. Properties of the Atmosphere

Air is a perfectly dry gas.

I. Properties of the Atmosphere

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

Ram air hole

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

Miles per hour

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

The altimeter measures static

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

Senses pressure changes and displays altitude in feet.

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

From high to low,

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

Clogged ram air hole

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

Keep the pitot tube cover on until just before

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

Engage pitot and/or static port heating

II. Pitot-Static Instruments

Aeroperu Flight No. 603

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

Directional Gyros are NOT north seeking.

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

Attitude Indicator does NOT indicate direction of flight,

III. Gyroscopic Instruments

Turn and Slip Indicator

III. Gyroscopic Instruments