UCS602 AnalysisModelling

Software Engineering: A Practitioners Approach,
6/e
Chapter 8
Analysis Modeling
copyright 1996, 2001, 2005
R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

For University Use Only
May be reproduced ONLY for student use at the university level
when used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach.
Any other reproduction or use is expressly prohibited.
These courseware materials are to be used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioners Approach, 6/e and
are provided with permission by R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc., copyright 1996, 2001, 2005
Requirements Analysis
Requirements analysis
specifies softwares operational characteristics

indicates software's interface with other system elements
establishes constraints that software must meet
Requirements analysis allows the software engineer

(called an analyst or modeler in this role) to:
elaborate on basic requirements established during earlier

requirement engineering tasks
build models that depict
user scenarios,
functional activities,
problem classes and their relationships,
system and class behavior, and
the flow of data as it is transformed.
A Bridge
system
description
analysis
model
design
model
Rules of Thumb
The model should focus on requirements that are visible within the
problem or business domain. The level of abstraction should be
relatively high.
Each element of the analysis model should add to an overall
understanding of software requirements and provide insight into
the information domain, function and behavior of the system.
Delay consideration of infrastructure and other non-functional
models until design.
Minimize coupling throughout the system.
Be certain that the analysis model provides value to all
stakeholders.
Keep the model as simple as it can be.
Domain Analysis
Software domain analysis is the identification, analysis,
and specification of common requirements from a
specific application domain, typically for reuse on
multiple projects within that application domain . . .
[Object-oriented domain analysis is] the identification,
analysis, and specification of common, reusable
capabilities within a specific application domain, in
terms of common objects, classes, subassemblies, and
frameworks . . .
Donald Firesmith
Domain Analysis
Define the domain to be investigated.

Collect a representative sample of applications in
the domain.
Analyze each application in the sample.
Develop an analysis model for the objects.
Data Modeling
examines data objects independently of

processing
focuses attention on the data domain
creates a model at the customers level of
abstraction
indicates how data objects relate to one
another
What is a Data Object?

Object something that is described by a set
of attributes (data items) and that will be
manipulated within the software (system)
each instance of an object (e.g., a book)
can be identified uniquely (e.g., ISBN #)
each plays a necessary role in the system
i.e., the system could not function without
access to instances of the object
each is described by attributes that are
themselves data items
Typical Objects
external entities (printer, user, sensor)
things (e.g, reports, displays, signals)
occurrences or events (e.g., interrupt, alarm)
roles (e.g., manager, engineer, salesperson)
(e.g., division, team)
organizational units
places (e.g., manufacturing floor)
structures (e.g., employee record)
10
Data Objects and Attributes

A data object contains a set of attributes that
act as an aspect, quality, characteristic, or
descriptor of the object
object: automobile
attributes:
make
model
body type
price
options code
11
What is a Relationship?
relationship indicates connectedness;
a "fact" that must be "remembered"
by the system and cannot or is not computed
or derived mechanically
several instances of a relationship can

exist
objects can be related in many different
ways
12
ERD Notation
One common form:
object1
(0, m)
relationship
(1, 1)
object 2
attribute
Another common form:

relationship
object1
(0, m)
(1, 1)
object 2
13
Building an ERD
Level 1model all data objects (entities) and their

connections to one another
Level 2model all entities and relationships
Level 3model all entities, relationships, and the
attributes that provide further depth
14
The ERD: An Example

Customer
(1,1)
places
(1,m)
request
for service
(1,1)
standard
task table
(1,1)
selected
from
generates
work
(1,w) tasks
materials
(1,w)
(1,i)
(1,n)
work
order
(1,1)
(1,1)
consists
of
lists
15
Object-Oriented Concepts
Must be understood to apply class-based

elements of the analysis model
Key concepts:
Classes and objects

Attributes and operations
Encapsulation and instantiation
Inheritance
16
Classes
object-oriented thinking begins with the

definition of a class, often defined as:
template
generalized description
blueprint ... describing a collection of
similar items
a metaclass (also called a superclass)

establishes a hierarchy of classes
once a class of items is defined, a
specific instance of the class can be
identified
17
Building a Class
class name
attributes:
operations
attributes:
operations:
18
What is a Class?
occurrences
things
roles
organizational units
places
structures
external entities
class name
attributes:
operations:
19
Encapsulation/Hiding
The object encapsulates
both data and the logical
procedures required to
manipulate the data
method
method
#2
#1
data
method
#3
method
#6
method
#5
method
#4
Achieves information hiding

20
Class Hierarchy
PieceOfFurniture (superclass)
Table
Chair
Desk
Chable"
subclasses of the
instances of Chair
21
Methods
(Operations, Services)
An executable procedure that is
encapsulated in a class and is designed
to operate on one or more data attributes
that are defined as part of the class.
A method is invoked
via message passing.
22
Scenario-Based Modeling
[Use-cases] are simply an aid to defining what exists
outside the system (actors) and what should be
performed by the system (use-cases). Ivar Jacobson
(1) What should we write about?
(2) How much should we write about it?
(3) How detailed should we make our description?
(4) How should we organize the description?
23
Use-Cases
a scenario that describes a thread of usage for

a system
actors represent roles people or devices play as
the system functions
users can play a number of different roles for a
given scenario
24
Developing a Use-Case
What are the main tasks or functions that are performed by the
actor?
What system information will the the actor acquire, produce or
change?
Will the actor have to inform the system about changes in the
external environment?
What information does the actor desire from the system?
Does the actor wish to be informed about unexpected changes?
25
Use-Case Diagram
SafeHome
Access camera
surveillance via the
Internet
cameras
Configure SafeHome
system parameters
homeowner
Set alarm
26
Activity Diagram
Supplements the use-case by providing a diagrammatic
representation of procedural flow
enter password
and user ID
valid passwor ds/ ID
invalid passwor ds/ ID
select major function
prompt for reentry
ot her f unct ions

may also be
select ed
input t r ies r emain
select surveillanc e
t humbnail views
no input
t r ies r emain
select a specif ic camer a
select specific
camera - thumbnails
selec t camera icon
view c amera output

in labelled window
prompt for
another view
exit t his f unct ion
see anot her camer a
27
Swimlane Diagrams
Allows the modeler to represent the flow of activities described by the use-case and at the
same time indicate which actor (if there are multiple actors involved in a specific use-case)
or analysis class has responsibility for the action described by an activity rectangle
h o m e o wn e r
c a m e ra
i n t e rf a c e
enter password
and user ID
valid p asswo rd s/ ID
in valid
p asswo rd s/ ID
select major function

o t her f u n ct io n s
may also b e
selected
prompt for reentry
in p u t t ries
remain
select surveillance
n o in p u t
t ries remain
t h u mb nail views
select a specif ic camera
select specific
camera - thumbnails
select camera icon
generate video
output
view camera output
in labelled window
prompt for
another view
exit t his
f u n ct io n
see
an o t h er
camera
28
Flow-Oriented Modeling
Represents how data objects are transformed at they
move through the system
A data flow diagram (DFD) is the diagrammatic form that
is used
Considered by many to be an old school approach, floworiented modeling continues to provide a view of the
system that is uniqueit should be used to supplement
other analysis model elements
29
The Flow Model

Every computer-based system is an
information transform ....
input
computer
based
system
output
30
Flow Modeling Notation

external entity
process
data flow
data store
31
External Entity
A producer or consumer of data
Examples: a person, a device, a sensor
Another example: computer-based
system
Data must always originate somewhere
and must always be sent to something
32
Process
A data transformer (changes input
to output)
Examples: compute taxes, determine area,
format report, display graph
Data must always be processed in some
way to achieve system function
33
Data Flow
Data flows through a system, beginning
as input and be transformed into output.
base
height
compute
triangle
area
area
34
Data Stores
Data is often stored for later use.
sensor #
report required
look-up
sensor
data
sensor number
sensor #, type,
location, age
type,
location, age
sensor data
35
Data Flow Diagramming:

Guidelines
all icons must be labeled with meaningful

names
the DFD evolves through a number of
levels of detail
always begin with a context level diagram
(also called level 0)
always show external entities at level 0
always label data flow arrows
do not represent procedural logic
36
Constructing a DFDI
review the data model to isolate data objects

and use a grammatical parse to determine
operations
determine external entities (producers and
consumers of data)
create a level 0 DFD
37
Level 0 DFD Example

user
video
source
processing
request
digital
video
processor
requested
video
signal
monitor
NTSC
video signal
38
Constructing a DFDII
write a narrative describing the transform

parse to determine next level transforms
balance the flow to maintain data flow
continuity
develop a level 1 DFD
use a 1:5 (approx.) expansion ratio
39
The Data Flow Hierarchy

x
p1
c
d
level 1
p2
level 0
f
p4
p3
p5
40
Flow Modeling Notes
each bubble is refined until it does just

one thing
the expansion ratio decreases as the
number of levels increase
most systems require between 3 and 7
levels for an adequate flow model
a single data flow item (arrow) may be
expanded as levels increase (data
dictionary provides information)
41
Process Specification (PSPEC)

bubble
PSPEC
narrative
pseudocode (PDL)
equations
tables
diagrams and/or charts
42
DFDs: A Look Ahead
analysis model
Maps into
design model
43
Diagram Layering and Process Refinement
Context-level diagram
Level 1 diagram
44
Data Flow Diagram
45
Grammatical Parse
The SafeHome security function enables the homeowner to configure the security system
when it is installed, monitors all sensors connected to the security system, and interacts with
the homeowner through the Internet, a PC, or a control panel.
During installation, the SafeHome PC is used to program and configure the system. Each
sensor is assigned a number and type, a master password is programmed for arming and
disarming the system, and telephone number(s) are input for dialing when a sensor event
occurs.
When a sensor event is recognized, the software invokes an audible alarm attached to the
system. After a delay time that is specified by the homeowner during system configuration
activities, the software dials a telephone number of a monitoring service, provides
information about the location, reporting the nature of the event that has been detected. The
telephone number will be redialed every 20 seconds until a telephone connection is obtained.
The homeowner receives security information via a control panel, the PC, or a browser,
collectively called an interface. The interface displays prompting messages and system status
information on the control panel, the PC, or the browser window. Homeowner interaction
takes the following form
46
47
Level 2 DFD that refines the monitor

sensors process
48
Control Flow Diagrams
Represents events and the processes that manage

events
An event is a Boolean condition that can be
ascertained by:
listing all sensors that are "read" by the software.

listing all interrupt conditions.
listing all data conditions.
recalling the noun/verb parse that was applied to the processing
narrative, review all "control items" as possible CSPEC
inputs/outputs.
49
Control Flow Specifications
50
Control Flow Specifications
51
Control Specification (CSPEC)

The CSPEC can be:
state diagram
state transition table
combinatorial spec
decision tables
activation tables
52
Class-Based Modeling
Identify analysis classes by examining the

problem statement
Use a grammatical parse to isolate potential
classes
Identify the attributes of each class
Identify operations that manipulate the attributes
53
Grammatical Parse
The Safehome security function enables the homeowner to
configure the security system when it is installed,
monitors all sensors connected to the security system, and
interacts with the homeowner through the Internet, a PC,
or a control panel.
During installation, the Safehome PC is used to program and
configure the system. Each sensor is assigned a number
and type, a master password is programmed for arming
and disarming the system, and telephone number(s) are
input for dialing when a sensor event occurs.
54
The Safehome security function enables the

homeowner to configure the security system
when it is installed, monitors all sensors connected
to the security system, and interacts with the
homeowner through the Internet, a PC, or a
control panel.
During installation, the Safehome PC is used to
program and configure the system. Each sensor is
assigned a number and type, a master password
is programmed for arming and disarming the
system, and telephone number(s) are input for
dialing when a sensor event occurs.
55
Verbs are Safehome processes

Nouns are external entities, data or control objects, or
data stores (or attributes of data objects)
56
Potential classes
Safehome security
Homeowner
security system
Sensors
Internet
PC
control panel
Number
Type
master password
telephone number(s)
sensor event
57
Analysis Classes
External entities (e.g., other systems, devices, people) that produce or

consume information to be used by a computer-based system.
Things (e.g, reports, displays, letters, signals) that are part of the
information domain for the problem.
Occurrences or events (e.g., a property transfer or the completion of a series
of robot movements) that occur within the context of system operation.
Roles (e.g., manager, engineer, salesperson) played by people who interact
with the system.
Organizational units (e.g., division, group, team) that are relevant to an
application.
Places (e.g., manufacturing floor or loading dock) that establish the context
of the problem and the overall function of the system.
Structures (e.g., sensors, four-wheeled vehicles, or computers) that define a
class of objects or related classes of objects.
58
Selecting ClassesCriteria
classes maybe useful if
1- retained information: its inf. shall be remembered.

2- needed services: have a set of operations to change its attributes.
3- multiple attributes: to be major enough.
4- common attributes: for all its instances.
5- common operations: for all its instances.
6- essential requirements: those who provide essential inf.,
usually external entities.
59
Potential classes: reject or accept according to the criteria?

Safehome security
Homeowner
PC
Accepted: all apply
Internet
The same as Safehome security function
Sensors
Reject, 1,2 fail, although 6 applies
security system
Accepted
?
?
control panel.
Accepted: al apply
60
Installation
Number, Type
Rejected, 3 fails
sensor event
rejected , 3 fails
telephone number(s)
Rejected, attributes of sensor, 3 fails
master password
rejected
Accepted, all apply
Audible alarm
Accepted:2,3,4,5,6 apply
61
Class name
Class Diagram
System
Identification inf
Alarm respose inf
Activation/deactivation inf
systemID
verificationPhoneNumber
systemStatus
delayTime
telephoneNumber
masterPassword
temporaryPassword
numberTries
program()
display()
reset()
query()
modify()
call()
attributes
operations
62
Class Diagram
FloorPlan
type
name
outsideDimensions
determineType ( )
positionFloorplan
scale( )
change color( )
is placed within
is part of
Camera
Wall
type
ID
location
fieldV iew
panA ngle
ZoomSetting
type
wallDimensions
determineType ( )
computeDimensions ( )
determineType ()
translateLocation ()
displayID()
displayV iew()
displayZoom()
is used to build
is used to build
is used to build
WallSegment
type
startCoordinates
stopCoordinates
nextWallSement
determineType ( )
draw( )
Window
Door
type
startCoordinates
stopCoordinates
nextWindow
type
startCoordinates
stopCoordinates
nextDoor
determineType ( )
draw( )
determineType ( )
draw( )
63
CRC Modeling
Analysis classes have responsibilities
Responsibilities are the attributes and operations encapsulated by

the class
Analysis classes collaborate with one another
Collaborators are those classes that are required to provide a class

with the information needed to complete a responsibility.
In general, a collaboration implies either a request for
information or a request for some action.
64
CRC Modeling
Class:
Class:
Description:
Class:
Description:
Class:FloorPlan
Description:
Responsibility:
Description:
Responsibility:
Responsibility:
Responsibility:
Collaborator:
Collaborator:
Collaborator:
Collaborator:
defines floor plan name/type

manages floor plan positioning
scales floor plan for display
scales floor plan for display
incorporates walls, doors and windows
Wall
shows position of video cameras
C amera
65
Class Types
Entity classes, also called model or business classes, are extracted directly
from the statement of the problem (e.g., FloorPlan and Sensor).
(persist)
Boundary classes are used to create the interface (e.g., interactive screen
or printed reports) that the user sees and interacts with as the software
is used. (like cameraWindow)
Controller classes manage a unit of work from start to finish (design
time). That is, controller classes can be designed to manage
the creation or update of entity objects;

the instantiation of boundary objects as they obtain information from entity
objects;
complex communication between sets of objects;
validation of data communicated between objects or between the user and
the application.
66
Responsibilities
How to allocate responsibilities to classes:
System intelligence should be distributed across classes to
best address the needs of the problem
Each responsibility should be stated as generally as
possible (high enough in hierarchy)
Information and the behavior related to it should reside
within the same class (encapsulation)
Information about one thing should be localized with a
single class, not distributed across multiple classes.
Responsibilities should be shared among related classes,
when appropriate.
67
Collaborations
Classes fulfill their responsibilities in one of two ways:
A class can use its own operations to manipulate its own

attributes, thereby fulfilling a particular responsibility, or
a class can collaborate with other classes.
Collaborations identify relationships between classes

Collaborations are identified by determining whether a class can fulfill each
responsibility itself
68
Composite Aggregate Class

Player
PlayerHead
PlayerBody
PlayerArms
PlayerLegs
69
Reviewing the CRC Model
All participants in the review (of the CRC model) are given a subset of the CRC model index
cards.
All use-case scenarios (and corresponding use-case diagrams) should be organized into
categories.
The review leader reads the use-case deliberately .
As the review leader comes to a named object, she passes a token to the person holding the
corresponding class index card.
When the token is passed, the holder of the class card is asked to describe the responsibilities
noted on the card.
Cards that collaborate should be separated (i.e., no reviewer should have two cards that collaborate).
The group determines whether one (or more) of the responsibilities satisfies the use-case
requirement.
If the responsibilities and collaborations noted on the index cards cannot accommodate the
use-case, modifications are made to the cards .
This may include the definition of new classes (and corresponding CRC index cards) or the
specification of new or revised responsibilities or collaborations on existing cards.
70
Associations and Dependencies
Two analysis classes are often related to one another in

some fashion
In UML these relationships are called associations

Associations can be refined by indicating multiplicity (the term
cardinality is used in data modeling)
In many instances, a client-server relationship exists

between two analysis classes.
In such cases, a client-class depends on the server-class in some

way and a dependency relationship is established
71
Association - Multiplicity
Wall
1
is used to build
1
is used to build
0..* is used to build
1..*
WallSegment
Window
0..*
Door
72
Dependencies
Camera
DisplayWindow
<<access>>
{password}
73
Analysis Packages
Various elements of the analysis model (e.g., use-cases,

analysis classes) are categorized in a manner that
packages them as a grouping
The plus sign preceding the analysis class name in each
package indicates that the classes have public visibility
and are therefore accessible from other packages.
Other symbols can precede an element within a package.
A minus sign indicates that an element is hidden from
all other packages and a # symbol indicates that an
element is accessible only to packages contained within a
given package.
74
Analysis Packages
package name
Environment
+Tree
+Landscape
+Road
+Wall
+Bridge
+Building
+VisualEffect
+Scene
RulesOfTheGame
+RulesOfMovement
+ConstraintsOnAction
Characters
+Player
+Protagonist
+Antagonist
+SupportingRole
75
Behavioral Modeling
The behavioral model indicates how software will respond to

external events or stimuli. To create the model, the analyst must
perform the following steps:
Evaluate all use-cases to fully understand the sequence of interaction within

the system.
Identify events that drive the interaction sequence and understand how these
events relate to specific objects.
Create a sequence for each use-case.
Build a state diagram for the system.
Review the behavioral model to verify accuracy and consistency.
76
State Representations
In the context of behavioral modeling, two different

characterizations of states must be considered:
the state of each class as the system performs its function and
the state of the system as observed from the outside as the
system performs its function
77
State Diagram for the ControlPanel Class

t imer < lockedTime
t imer > lockedTime
locked
password = incorrect
& numberOfTries < maxTries
key hit
comparing
reading
password
ent ered
numberOfTries > maxTries
do: validatePassword
password = correct
select ing
act ivat ion successful
78
The States of a System
statea set of observable circum-stances

that characterizes the behavior of a
system at a given time
state transitionthe movement from one
state to another
eventan occurrence that causes the
system to exhibit some predictable form
of behavior
actionprocess that occurs as a
consequence of making a transition
79
Behavioral Modeling
make a list of the different states of a system

(How does the system behave?)
indicate how the system makes a transition
from one state to another (How does the
system change state?)
indicate event
indicate action
draw a state diagram or a sequence diagram
80
Sequence Diagram
cont rol panel
homeowner
syst em
ready
sensors
sensors
syst em
reading
password ent ered
comparing
request lookup
result
password = correct
request act ivat ion
numberOfTries > maxTries
locked
t imer > lockedTime
select ing
Figure 8.27 Sequence diagram (partial) for
SafeHome security function
81
Writing the Software Specification

Everyone knew exactly
what had to be done
until someone wrote it
down!
82
Specification Guidelines
use a layered format that provides increasing detail
as the "layers" deepen
use consistent graphical notation and apply textual
terms consistently (stay away from aliases)
be sure to define all acronyms
be sure to include a table of contents; ideally,
include an index and/or a glossary
write in a simple, unambiguous style (see "editing
suggestions" on the following pages)
always put yourself in the reader's position, "Would
I be able to understand this if I wasn't intimately
familiar with the system?"
83
Be on the lookout for persuasive connectors, ask why?
keys: certainly, therefore, clearly, obviously, it follows that ...
Watch out for vague terms
keys: some, sometimes, often, usually,ordinarily, most, mostly ...
When lists are given, but not completed, be sure all items are understood
keys: etc., and so forth, and so on, such as
Be sure stated ranges don't contain unstated assumptions
e.g., Valid codes range from 10 to 100. Integer? Real? Hex?
Beware of vague verbs such as handled, rejected, processed, ...
Beware "passive voice" statements
e.g., The parameters are initialized. By what?
Beware "dangling" pronouns
e.g., The I/O module communicated with the data validation module and
its contol flag is set. Whose control flag?
84
When a term is explicitly defined in one place, try
substituting the definition forother occurrences of the term
When a structure is described in words, draw a picture
When a structure is described with a picture, try to redraw
the picture to emphasize different elements of the structure
When symbolic equations are used, try expressing their
meaning in words
When a calculation is specified, work at least two
examples
Look for statements that imply certainty, then ask for proof
keys; always, every, all, none, never
Search behind certainty statementsbe sure restrictions
or limitations are realistic
85
Excercises
7.1 a,b
8.6a, 8.7a, 8.9a, 8.12 8.10,8.14,8.15,8.18
86

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Software Engineering: A Practitioners Approach,

R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

specifies softwares operational characteristics

Requirements analysis allows the software engineer

elaborate on basic requirements established during earlier

Define the domain to be investigated.

examines data objects independently of

What is a Data Object?

Data Objects and Attributes

several instances of a relationship can

Another common form:

Level 1model all data objects (entities) and their

The ERD: An Example

Must be understood to apply class-based

Classes and objects

object-oriented thinking begins with the

a metaclass (also called a superclass)

Achieves information hiding

a scenario that describes a thread of usage for

valid passwor ds/ ID

invalid passwor ds/ ID

select major function

prompt for reentry

ot her f unct ions

select a specif ic camer a

selec t camera icon

view c amera output

see anot her camer a

select major function

prompt for reentry

select a specif ic camera

select camera icon

The Flow Model

Flow Modeling Notation

Data Flow Diagramming:

all icons must be labeled with meaningful

review the data model to isolate data objects

Level 0 DFD Example

write a narrative describing the transform

The Data Flow Hierarchy

Flow Modeling Notes

each bubble is refined until it does just

Process Specification (PSPEC)

DFDs: A Look Ahead

Diagram Layering and Process Refinement

Data Flow Diagram

Level 2 DFD that refines the monitor

Control Flow Diagrams

Represents events and the processes that manage

listing all sensors that are "read" by the software.

Control Flow Specifications

Control Flow Specifications

Control Specification (CSPEC)

Identify analysis classes by examining the

The Safehome security function enables the

Verbs are Safehome processes

External entities (e.g., other systems, devices, people) that produce or

1- retained information: its inf. shall be remembered.

Potential classes: reject or accept according to the criteria?

Accepted: all apply

The same as Safehome security function

Reject, 1,2 fail, although 6 applies