Biomedical Engineering

Interdisciplinary branch provides interface b/w

medical and engineering.
This joint effort is aimed at wellness i.e. keeping
people healthy and helps to assist and cure them
in case of illness.

Biomedical
Instrumentation
Biometrics: science that includes measurement of physiological
(not
physical)
variables/parameters
and
biomedical
instrumentation provides the tools
-some BI are unique
-other adaptation of widely used-thermistor/strain gage

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Indicating
Recording
Monitoring
Data Logging
Control

Crux
Aim: Introduce all aspects of BI from motivation, design, use
and maintenance.
Pre-requisites: elementary background in electronics and
casual familiarity with human anatomy and physiology.
Outcome: (1) Perspective of the field and feel of subject, (2)
develop understanding of living subjects especially main
systems like cardiovascular, nervous and respiratory
systems, and (3) get the concept of man-instrument system
and problem encountered in attempting measurement form
living bodies. (4) enable research
Suggestion: Go through Medical Terminology and Glossary

Syllabus
Transducers for physiological parameter reading and their
characteristics.
Action potential, ECG, EEG and EMG signals: origin and application
to medical diagnosis.
Electrodes for recording biomedical signals.
Instrumentation amplifier, signal conditioners,
A/D and D/A converters
Computerized automatic analysis
Ultrasound, CT, MRI based diagnosis
Lasers in medical diagnosis and therapy.
Prosthesis
Safety aspects
1st lecture ends.

Age of Biomedical
Engineering
Early scientific discoveries (Archimedes and its Greek
contemporaries )-lead to emergence of engineeringprogressed after industrial revolution (1760-1830).
Ages:
steam
engine,
automobile,
radiocommunication-took a decade for rapid development.
Since WW-II (1939-45): overlapping tech ages-nuclear
and aerospace engg.-reached peak and settled down
to a routine, orderly progression.
Recently, computer engg.-rapidly grown and still has
potential.
Now, the time for the era of health care has arrived.

 Admittedly, the previous tech ages introduced

many new comforts but produced evils like water
pollution, mortality and morbidity by accidents,
destructive warfare weapons.
However, BME cant be criticized for producing
such evils. Of course safety, hazards and sideeffect issues need to be dealt for diagnostic and
treatment modalities.
In a nut shell: adverse effects < benefits that
mankind can derive from health care tech.

Problems: As its an
emerging area
Defining the terms and personnel involved:
-like bioengineering, biomedical engineer, clinical engineer,
hospital engineer, medical engineer, biophysicist etc.
Committees or professional societies:
IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Group
The Instrument Society of America
The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Subcommittee B (Instrumentation) of Engineers Joint
Council
Committee on Engineering Interactions with Biology
and Medicine
Association
for
the
Advancement
of
Medical
Instrumentation (AAMI)

 Defining the terms and personnel involved:

Bioengineering: application of the knowledge gained by a cross

fertilization of engineering and the biological sciences so that both will
be more fully utilized for the benefit of man.

Biomedical engineer: Person working in the research or development

in the interface area of medicine and engineering.

Clinical engineer: practitioner working with physicians and patients.

professional who brings to healthcare a level of education, experience,
and accomplishment which will enable him to responsibly, effectively,
and safely manage and interface with medical devices, instruments,
and systems and use thereof during patient care and who can, because
of this level of competence, responsibly and directly serve patient and
physician, nurse and other healthcare professionals related to their use
of and other contact with medical instrumentation. application level

Biomedical Equipment Technician (BMET): individual who is

knowledgeable about the theory of operation, the underlying
physiologic principles, and the practical, safe clinical application of
biomedical
equipment.
His
capabilities
include
installation,
calibration, inspection, preventive maintenance and repair of general
biomedical and related technical equipment as well as operation or
supervision of equipment control, safety and maintenance programs
and systems.

Ultimate truth: Accomplishment of the field matters

rather name
Communication b/w engineer and medical professional.

DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMEDICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Many devices were developed in the early 19th
century
At the end of century, Einthoven used ECG
machine for the first time.

 Due to lake of instruments such as amplifiers and

recorders the progress was slow until WW II i.e.
during 1950s.
Research revealed that-Physiological parameters
can not be measure as physical parameters.
Following decade, cost of medical instruments
were high and also medical staff were suspicious
of the new equipments and often uncooperative.
During the Mercury , Gemini and Apollo program
for astronauts, NASA provided large help to
design medical instruments.
After that universities, hospitals, colleges and
researchers are started more working in this field.

BIOMETRICS
The branch of science that includes the measurement of
physiological variables and parameters is known as
biometrics.
Measuring instruments related to body use sensors and
transducers
Transducers: convert one form of energy to another
Sensors-detect changes in process parameter/physical
stimulus-uses transducers along with other component
like signal conditioning ckts.
Eg. Glucose sensor: receptor+transducer
Glucose oxidase selectively react with glucose-producing H 2O2
Transducer changes concentration (chemical energy)of H 2O2
to electrical energy

 Physiological measurements:

2nd

Bioelectric potentials-like ECG

Skin resistance measurement-as in lie detector
Cardiovascular measurement-BP measurement
Respiration measurement-like breathing rate
Temperature measurement-as in case of fever
Behavioral characteristics-involves stimulus based responses (like
hearing lose)
lecture ends here

For designing of medical instrumentation systems, few factors

are to be considered for reliable and meaningful
measurement:(1) Range, (2) Sensitivity, (3) Linearity, (4) Hysteresis,
(5) Frequency Response, (6) Accuracy, (7) Signal to Nosie
Ratio, (8) Stability, (9) Isolation, (10) Simplicity.

 RANGE : Includes all the levels of input amplitude

and frequency over which the device is expected to
operate.
If an instrument can read up to 200 mmHg
(torr/133.3pascal) and the actual reading is 250 mmHg then
you have exceeded the range of the instrument.

SENSITIVITY: The sensitivity of an instrument

determines how small a variation of a
variable/parameter can be reliably measured.
Determine resolution of device
Too high results into nonlinearity and instability
Expressed as scale length/quantity to be measured

eg. Inches per microampere in a galvanometer

Eg. Blood pressure transducer sensitivity of 10 uV/mmHg so to
see a 10 uV change for every mmHg applied to the system.

Output

Output
Input

Input

Which is more sensitive?

The left side one
because youll have a larger change in y for a
given change in x

 LINEARITY: The degree to which variations in the

output of an instrument follow input variations is
referred to as the linearity of the device.-dy/dx

Sensitivity is same at all portion of range

Otherwise purposely nonlinearity is introduced
Nonlinearity (%) = (Din(Max) / INfs) * 100%
Nonlinearity is percentage of nonlinear
Din(max) = maximum input deviation
INfs = maximum full-scale input

Full Scale Input

Output

al
e
Id

r
u
s
a
e
M

Din(Max)
Input

 HYSTERESIS: characteristic of some instruments

that cause to a different reading when reached in
ascending direction from that of descending
direction.
Hysterein-means-lag behind
Eg. Indicating needle lag behind corresponding changes
in measured variable due to friction.

 FREQUENCY
RESPONSE:
The
frequency
response of an instrument is its variation in
sensitivity over the frequency range of the
measurement.
In practice, you have attenuation of lower and higher
frequencies
Waveshape should be a faithful reproduction of
original physiological signal
Av
Flat response for desired frequencies is required
Av = Vo/Vi
1.0
0.707

FL
FH
Frequency () radians per second

FL and FH are known as the 3 dB points in voltage systems.

 ACCURACY: maximum difference that will exist

between the actual value and the indicated value
of the sensor.
Errors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Tolerances of electronic component

Mechanical errors in meter movement
Due to poor frequency response
Due to change in temperature/pressure
Reading error due to parallax, inadequate
illumination, excessive wide ink traces on a pen
recording
6. Zeroing or baseline setting
7. Effect of instrument on the measured parameter
itself

SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO: Its a ratio of signal

power to noise power and it should be as high as

 ISOLATION: instrument should provide -b/w subject and ground

Necessary for-electrical safety to avoid interference b/w instruments
Magnetic/optical coupling or radiotelemetery (when subject movement
is essential, avoid connecting leads)

STABILITY: In control engineering, stability is the ability of a

system to resume a steady state condition following a
disturbance at the input rather than be driven into
uncontrollable oscillation.

Depends on amplification, feedback, other features of system

Eg. Baseline stability without any drift

SIMPLICITY: All systems and instruments should be as simple as

possible to eliminate the chance of component or human error
-calibration before using component level/system levelexternal/ in situ- It needs to be error-free with simplest reference
Eg. Blood pressure monitor calibration against-simple mercury
manometer
3rd lecture ends here-4th -examples

INTRODUCTION TO THE MANINSTRUMENT SYSTEM

Black box-and system identification i.e. i/o equations
Human body -complex living box- contains electrical (neurons) ,
mechanical (heart), acoustical (lungs), thermal, chemical (endocrine),
optical (eye), hydraulic (heart), pneumatic (lungs) and many other
types of systems, all interacting with each other.
i/o relationships are not deterministic.-time to time, person to person,
demographical
Many difficulties to measure a physiological parameters (against nonliving).
-inaccessibility- substitute measure must be used

-high degree of interaction and more feedback paths

-measuring device itself changes the measured
-occasionally even ethical (like in surgery) and legal consideration
-safety considerations- not endanger life, undue pain, discomfort.

Large amount of interaction b/w body and instrument.

Thus man-instrument system includes both the human organism
and the instrumentation required for measurement of the human.

INTRODUCTION TO THE MANINSTRUMENT SYSTEM

On the other hand, instrumentation system: a set of instruments
and equipment utilized in the measurement of one or more
characteristics or phenomena, plus presentation of information
obtained from those measurement in a form that can be read and
interpreted by man.
Major categories 1. Information gathering-to aid man in a quest for knowledge (DAS)
2. Diagnosis-detection for correction of abnormality trouble shooting
equipment eg. X-ray machine for fracture detection
3. Evaluation-measure ability of the system to meet its functional
requirement-BP measurement-80/120 mmHg or vitamin D measure
4. Monitoring-to track system performance-continuous/periodic-vital
parameters in ICU like pulse, bp, temp, Spo2, pain, urine etc.
5. Control-Robotic surgery

During robot-assisted heart surgery, a doctor works at a

remote console controlling the robotic instruments, which use
small, precise movements to perform the surgery.

INTRODUCTION TO THE MANINSTRUMENT SYSTEM

Another classification of BI:

Clinical Instrument-diagnosis, treatment and care of

patients-more rugged/easier to use-clinical decisionsnurse/physicians.
Research instruments-more accurate, precision,
resolution, complex and specialized-for skilled
technologist

Two types of measurements:

(1) In vivo( On or within living organism)
(2) In vitro literally in glass(Out side the Body)

COMPONETNTS OF THE MAN

INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
Block diagram of Man-Instrument
System.

Block diagram of Man-Instrument system

COMPONENT
1.
2.

Subject
Stimulus-not in all
Visual (light flush)
Auditory (tone)
Eg. Evaluate loss of hearing
Electrical stimulus to part of brain
or defibrillation

3.
4.

Transducers-outputs electrical energy

Signal-conditioning equipment

5.

amplify, modify
changes output from transducer/s
Suitable for display or recording

Display equipment
-graphical pen recorder of analog waveform
6. Recording, data processing,
and Transmission equipment
-for future playback
7. Control devices control stimulus

SUBJECT: At highest hierarchy

Communication of
Man with his
environment

SUBJECT: Living and Non living

things

Metabolism
Catabolism:protein in food to amino acid
Anabolism:amino acids to structure like bone, muscles

Responsiveness: ability to detect and respond to changespotential threat muscle cell contract to save you from
danger like fire.
Movement: WBC move to site of injury-platelet -clot
formation
Growth: in size and shape
Differentiation: stem cells: unspecialized to specialized cell
-fertilization of ovum by sperm-develops into embryo, fetus, infant, child to
adult

Reproduction: formation of new cell-always/individual from

generation to generation

ORGANIZATION OF BODY
Body: starts with single fertilized cell (Ovum by
sperms)
-differentiate to allow specific cell to acquire specialized
functions-then these in group form tissue
-division of cells to make multiple copies

Tissues (4): group of cells with related functions

Muscles, nervous, connective (tendon,cartilage,lymph)

and epithelium (inner lining of stomach)

Organs-functional units
Organ systems-several organ act together to
perform specific function

Organ systems: Functions

Skin-barrier largest organ hydrophobic
Entry-respiratory: (O2) and GI:
(food,nutrients:carbohydrate,mineral,protein, vitamine,
liquid)

Transport-CV diffusion vasculature

Exit-Renal (liquid waste:excess water,ions etc)
and GI (solid waste)
5th lecture ends here

Homeostasis and fluid

compartments
Learning objectives:
Fluid compartments
Homeostasis
How solute distribute in the body-NaCl,
glucose
Mass balance

 Homeostasis: ( homeo- sameness; -stasis standing

still) is the condition of equilibrium (balance) in the
bodys internal environment due to the constant
interaction of the bodys many regulatory processes.
a dynamic condition- central theme of physiology
In response to changing conditions, the bodys equilibrium
can shift among points in a narrow range that is
compatible with maintaining life.
For example, the level of glucose in blood normally stays
between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per 100
milliliters of blood.
Each structure- cell to the system level, integrate and try
to keep the internal environment within normal limits.

Physiologist view of body

ECF (buffer zone) vs ICF
Plasma
membrane
ECF 1/3 TBW
[Na]>[K]

IVF:Intra
ISF:Interstitial
vascular fluid- fluid
1/4 ECF
b/w cells and
protein
vasculature-co
[Na]=[Na]
nnective
tissues
roteins
[K]=[K]
qual distribution becoz Barrier epithelial

Active
pumpsATPase
2K
3 Na
-leaky

ICF 2/3 TBW

INSIDE OF
CELLS
[K]>[Na]

TBW:Total body water

60% of weight

70 Kg man- TBW=42L
ICF=cytoplasm (2/3 TBW)=28L
ECF=surrounding cells is an interface to ext.
environment. (1/3 TBW) =14L

IVF=1/4*1/3=1/12 TBW (Blood plasma, its small)

ISF=3/4*1/3=3/12 TBW

Self Regulating Mechanism b/w

different fluid spaces
IVF/ISF-Equilibrium:not net transfer of
energy or substances, no barrier to
movement, no energy expenditure to
maintain
ECF/ICF-Steady state: constant
amount of substances in
compartments, input =output,
energy is required

Summary
Cells require tightly regulated environment
They require specific factors to be within a range like
O2, CO2, H ions, temp., glucose presented to cells.
We take a lot of substance in day to day life-changing
the environment of body
ECF-buffer zone absorbs the changes-preventing cells
maintain life
Proteins, amino acids etc.-GI tract-blood distribution
to cells
ECF constituents are maintained as relatively
constant by parts of body at various level of
hierarchy

If ECF is not maintained

Input =output-wellness
Material within ECF is compatible with the
life of cells

Input<output or conversepathophysiology or illness

If an organ system is not performing wellwe end up with-illness

Homeostatic control and reflex

loops
Major way to regulate ECF is by way of reflex loops.
Reflex loops: 3 components
Integrating center: usually brain
Sensor: that detect specific stimulus
Effectors: {Fact-billion neurons, neurons connect to
10000 nearby neurons, cm3 of brain tissue-stars as
many as milky way galaxy}
Generate response to affect stimulus-bring body back to normal if
disturbed

 Plz refer to notes on Regulation of

Homeostasis as 6th and 7th lecture

Facts
Integumentary: In-inward, tegere-to cover;skin or
integument
Dermatology-medicine that deals, dermatologistranging from acne, sever burning to scarring
22 sq. ft.,5 kg, 7%of body weight,
Eyelid-0.5mm,heels-4mm, over most parts-12mm
400 ml water is evaporated/day
Fat soluble vitamins-A,D,E,K-can be absorbed
Color-hemoglobin (red), carotene (yellow) and
melanin (black)

 Regulate temperature of our body-37 degree C by

antagonistic effect of sweating and shivering.
More exposed to infection, diseases, injury-first
line of defense
Protective features ward of dangers-sunlight,
trauma, sunlight, microbes, pollution
Acid oily surface pH 4 to 6.8 retard growth of
microbes
UV rays-precursor molecules activation-modified
to calcitriol (active form of Vit D, also a hormone)
by kidney & Liver-Ca and P absorption increases
from food to blood
10-15 minutes twice per week sunlight
Dermis-10% of blood-reservoir

 Emotion-sweating and helps us communicate with

others
Color
change-homeostatic
imbalance-bluishhypoxia (oxy decreases at tissue level)-sign of heart
failure, bluishness due to vasodilation of arterioles
Jaundice-liver dysfunction-yellowing of skinexcess bile pigment in blood vessels.
Anger and embarrassment also change skin color
Seriousness of burning depend on surface area and
depth (Epidermis-1st degree, epidermis +Dermis-2nd
degree , all three layers-3rd degree)

Epidermis Cells
Keratinocytes-90% of epidermis cells (Keratinohorn like)-produce keratin protein-tough,
fibrous-protect underlying tissue from abrasion,
microbes, chemicals,heat etc.
Melanocytes (8%)-produce melanin (melanoblack)-yellow-red or brown-black pigments-skin
color and absorb damaging UV light
Langerhans cells-arise from red bone marrowimmune system-help recognize invading
microbes to destroy them
Merkel cells-in deepest layer-detect sensation
Pacinian corpuscles in dermis-pressure
Meissner register-touch

Cutaneous sensations:
1. tactile sensation-touch, vibration, pressure,
tickling
2. Temperature, warmth, coolness
3. Pain-indicate impeding or actual damages

RECEPTOR FUNCTION

Corpuscles of touch (Meissners corpuscles)-Detect light motion against the

skin
Free nerve endings-Detect changes in temperature; respond to tissue trauma
(pain receptors)
Root hair plexuses-Detect movements of hair
Lamellated (pacinian) corpuscles-Detect deep pressure, high-frequency
vibration
Organs of Ruffini-Detect deep pressure, stretch
Bulbs of Krause-Detect light pressure, low-frequency vibration

Epidermis layers-constantly worn off

and replaced
Germinativium-cell divide and grow and displace up
Granulosum-cell reaching here die and lose nuclear
material
Corneum-died cells degenerate into flat keratinous
material
Cells take 7 weeks to reach corneum-location & age
Epidermis-thinner as we age, rate of mitosis decreases
Different electrical characteristics from living tissue
Eg. Per sq cm skin impedance 200k ohm at 1Hz
200 ohm at 1MHz

Dermis
Contain-Collagen, elastic & reticular fibers give
supports
Collagen-provides line of tension
Elastic fiber-skin tone-wrinkles
Reticular fibers form strong meshwork

Sweat and oil glands, nerve endings and hair

follicles

Collagenous
fibers-clinical
concern-have
definite
direction-line of tension-in surgery-healing is fast with less
scarring along these line
Friction ridges are print patterns in digits-due to pulling
effect of fibers-individualistic and established prenatally

Hypodermis or subcutaneous layer

Contain connective tissue, adipose tissue,
blood and lymph vessels
Skin ligaments (collagen & elastic fibers)
anchor it to underlying tissue-particularly at
sole and palm
Thicker
in
women
(8-10%)-due
to
deposition of lipids in adipocyte cells (fat
cells)-hormone influenced

Low fat reserve-responsible for absence

menstruation amenorrhea
Ovulation gets disturbed-impairing fertility

of

 Regulate temperature
Acts as a cushion to body
Hypodermic needle-inject fat soluble drugs
longer lasting effect than water soluble drug

 Bone tissue stores 99% of ca and P

Have red bone marrow-connective
tissue
RBM-hip, rib, sternum, humerus,
femur etc.
270 bone in infants-206 adults
Hematopoesis-WBC,RBC,Platelets
Erythropoesis-RBC

Bone Cells and Ossification

Osteogenic cells -progenitor cells that give rise to
all bone cells.
Osteoblasts: -principal bone-building cells-synthesize
collagenous
fibers
and
bone
matrix
-promote
mineralization during ossification.
Osteocytes: After ossification, osteoblasts develop into
osteocytes that maintain the bone tissue.
Osteoclasts: contain lysosomes and phagocytic vacuoles.
These bone-destroying cells demineralize bone tissue.
Note: Ossification from primary centers occurs before birth: from
secondary centers (in the epiphyses), it occurs during the first 5
years.

 Mitotically active epiphyseal plate of hyaline cartilage

separates the epiphyses/diaphysis-produces elongation
Articular cartilage-hyaline cartilage-facilitate movement

Bone growth ceases at physical

maturity?
Linear bone growth does cease as the
epiphyseal lines replace the epiphyseal
plates
Ossification occurs between the epiphyses
and diaphyses.
However, diametric bone growth and
enlargement of bony processes may occur
at any time to accommodate an increase
in body mass (as with a weight lifter).

Lateral view of skull

Inferior view of skull

Anterior view of sphenoid bone

Supports pituitary gland

Weak bone-several foramen-most frequently
fractured-readily heals with no complications

Auditory ossciles
The auditory ossicles amplify and transmit sound from the outer ear to

body

Hyoid bone

U shaped, in the anterior neck, where it supports the

tongue superiorly and the larynx (voice box) inferiorly
several anterior neck muscles attach to it.
Major role in swallowing.
It is a unique bone - not attach directly to any other bone.
Parts-body, greater cornu, lesser cornu

 33 individual vertebrae carry spinal nerves

7 cervical,
12 thoracic
5 lumbar,
4 or 5 fused sacral,
4 or 5 fused coccygeal vertebrae
total of 26 movable parts

separated by fibrocartilaginous
intervertebral discs
secured by
interlocking processes and binding ligaments.
limited movement b/w vertebrae but extensive
movements of the vertebral column as a unit.

Lateral view of vertebral column

The rib cage consists of (a) the sternum, costal cartilages,

and 12 paired ribs attached to the thoracic vertebrae (b) a
typical rib.

Joints
Articulating bones are joined by:
Fibrous joints-like suture on skull and b/w teeth
and bone
Cartilaginous joints:-hyaline, eg. Epiphyseal plate
Synovial joint: capsule, membrane and fluid

Glidding-palm and sole

Hinge-knee
Pivot
Saddle-thumb
Ball and socket-hip and shoulder

Note: A few fibrous and cartilaginous joint are

movable

 Synovial joints are enclosed by a fibroelastic joint

capsule, which is lined by a thin synovial
membrane
The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid, which
fills the joint capsule and lubricates the articular
cartilage at the ends of the articulating bones.
cartilaginous pads, called menisci, that cushion and
guide thearticular cartilages.
Synovial fluid is also contained within small
membranous sacs called bursae (singular bursa) that
cushion muscles and facilitate movements of tendons
around synovial joints.

Movements at synovial
joints

 Flexion: decreases the angle between two bones;

Extension: increases the angle
Abduction:-away from the midline of the body or a body
part;
Adduction: is movement toward the midline or a body part.
Rotation: is the movement of a bone around its own axis,
without
lateral displacement.
Eg. Pronation :is the forearm rotation that results in the palm of the
hand being directed backward;
Supination: The opposite rotation

Circumduction is a circular, conelike movement of a body

segment.

Terms
Scoliosis Excessive lateral deviation of the
vertebral column.
Kyphosis (humpback) An abnormal posterior
convexity of the lower vertebral column.
Lordosis hollow back or saddle back.
Arthritis An inflammatory joint disease of
synovial membrane and the articular cartilage. In
certain types of arthritis, mineral deposits may
form.
Bursitis Inflammation of a bursa.
Dislocation Displacement of one bone away
from its natural articulation with another.
Fracture A cracking or breaking of a bone.

 Osteoarthritis A localized degeneration of articular

cartilage. Osteoporosis Atrophy of bone tissue,
resulting in marked porosity in skeletal material. Causes
include aging, prolonged inactivity, malnutrition, and an
unbalanced secretion of hormones.
Slipped disc Herniation of the nucleus pulposus of an
intervertebral disc.
Spina bifida Developmental flaw in which the laminae
of the vertebrae fail to fuse. The spinal cord may
protrude through the opening.
Sprain Straining or tearing of the ligaments and/or
tendons

 Do exercise so that HR remains 70 %

of your maximum HR-to shed flab
(aerobic respiration)
Running/Jogging/walking-long time
use fat

Types
On the basis of structure,
central nervous system (CNS): brain and the spinal cord
And peripheral nervous system (PNS): cranial nerves
from the brain and spinal nerves from the spinal cord

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a

functional division: ANS control centers, and specific
nerves-works automatically to speed up or slow
down body activities (para/symp of heart, rate,
temp., digestion, respiratory rate).
* Nervous system-faster and specific than
endocrine system

Parts of neuron
Dendrites-little trees, receiving part or input

array of processes extent from cell body

Axon-nerve impulse propagation to another

neuron, muscle cell or gland
Axon hillock-cone shaped elevation-trigger zone
Axon terminal-fine processes, bulb shaped at end

Synapse site of communication b/w neurons

and neuron and effector cells
Synaptic vesicles-membraneneurotransmitter

Glial Cells
Supporting cells-structure and
metabolism support-neuroglia-1/3
rd volume of CNS
Fill spaces in injury

 Neuron are as long as 3 ft (micro meter diameter)

Sensory-afferent
Motory-efferent
Alpha motor neurons innervate and stimulate skeletal
muscle.
Gamma motor neurons innervate specialized muscle
tissue called the muscle spindle.

Stimulus-energy source activate receptor

(chemical, light etc.), sensation (transmission of
nerve impulse), perception occurs in cerebral
cortex-eg. pricking ones finger
Perception is the awareness of stimulus

 Myelin is an insulating cellular membrane consisting of

a fatlike lipid substance known as sphingomyelin-wraps
around the neuron, creating a multilayered sheath.
The sheath insulates nerve fibers and thereby inhibits
the flow of ions between intracellular and extracellular
fluid compartments.
Two fairly common diseases afflict the myelin sheaths

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic degenerative disease, marked

by remission and relapse, that progressively destroys the myelin
sheaths of neurons in multiple areas of the CNS.
Tay-Sachs disease is an inherited disease in which the myelin
sheaths are destroyed by excessive accumulation of lipids within
the membrane.

 White matter is composed primarily of

myelinated axons. The whitish color of myelin
gives white matter its name.
The gray matter of the nervous system contains
neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated
axons, axon terminals, and neuroglia.

Resting membrane potential

In a nonconducting (resting) neuron, a voltage exists
across the cell membrane.
This resting potential is due to imbalance of charged
particles (ions) between ICF and ECF.
There is a net positive charge on outer side and a net
negative charge on inner side due to following
mechanism:

A sodiumpotassium pump protein transports Na ions to the

outside and K ions to the inside, with 3 Na moved out for every two
K moved in.
The cell membrane is more permeable to K than to Na, so that the
K, which is relatively concentrated inside the cell, moves outward
faster than the Na, which is relatively concentrated outside the cell,
moves inward.
The cell membrane is essentially impermeable to the large
(negatively charged) anions that are present inside the neuron;
therefore, fewer negatively charged particles move out than
positively charged particles.

Equilibrium gradients
E

=60 mV, due to sodium ions

Na

E K=-90 mV, potassium

Resulting into overall resting
membrane potential=-70mV

Action Potential
Nerve impulses-carry information-progression of an
abrupt change in the resting potential along the
neuron membrane-traveling disturbance, called
an action potential
The resting membrane potential is about -70 mV.
A threshold stimulus (just adequate) will sufficiently
increase the permeability of the membrane to Na
ions to raise the membrane potential to about -55
mV.
Once this threshold potential has been reached,
complete depolarization and repolarization occur,
and an action potential is generated.

The sequence of events is as

follows:

Stimulus (chemical-electrical-mechanical) is sufficient

The membranes permeability to Na ions increases at point
of stimulation.
Sodium ions rapidly move into cell through the membrane.
As Na ions move into the cell, the normally negative
membrane potential reaches zero
Na ions continue to move inward, and inside of the
membrane becomes positively charged relative to the
outside (depolarization)
Reverse polarization at the original site of stimulation
results in a local current that acts as a stimulus to the
adjacent region of the membrane.
At the point originally stimulated, the membranes
permeability to Na decreases, and its permeability to K
increases.
K ions rapidly move outward, again making the outside of
the membrane positive in relation to the inside

 Nerve and muscle cells obey the all-or-none

law, which states that a threshold stimulus
evokes a maximal response and that a
subthreshold stimulus evokes no response.
In the interval until repolarization -no stimulus
can elicit another response; the dead phase is
absolute refractory period.
Following is relative refractory period in which the
neuron will
not respond to a normal threshold stimulus
but will respond to a suprathreshold stimulus

 Synapse-junction-impulses pass from one neuron

to another
The steps in the process are as follows:
An action potential spreads over the axon terminal.
An influx of ca ions causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with
the presynaptic membrane.
Neurotransmitter (NT) is released by exocytosis from the
synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft.
NT diffuses across synaptic cleft to postsynaptic membrane.
NT combines with specific receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane.
The permeability of postsynaptic membrane is altered,
whereupon an impulse is initiated on the second neuron.
The neurotransmitter is removed from the synapse as a
result of being enzymatically degraded, taken up in the
presynaptic terminal, or diffused out of the synaptic region.

Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

Excitatory
-increase
the
postsynaptic
membranes
permeability to Na ions. The increased but still subthreshold
membrane potential is known as an excitatory postsynaptic
potential (EPSP), and the membrane is said to be
hypopolarized.
There are two ways in which several EPSPs can combine to
reach threshold and elicit an action potential:
(a) in spatial summation, several presynaptic neurons simultaneously
release neurotransmitter to a single postsynaptic neuron;
(b) in temporal summation, the EPSPs result from the rapid successive
discharge of neurotransmitter from the same axon terminal.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters -increase the postsynaptic

membranes permeability to K and chloride ions, resulting in a
hyperpolarized membrane that exhibits an inhibitory
postsynaptic potential (IPSP).
During the time the membrane is hyperpolarized, the potential
is farther below threshold, making it more difficult to generate
an action potential.

Conduction Speed
Factors influence the speed at which impulses are
conducted along excitable cell membranes:
*Conduction speed-0.5 to 130 m/sec

Diameter of the conducting fiber-Conduction velocity is

directly proportional to fiber diameter.
Temperature of the cell-Warmer nerve fibers conduct
impulses at higher speeds.
Presence or absence of the myelin sheath-Myelinated
fibers conduct impulses more rapidly
action potentials leap from one neurofibril node to next
instead of progressing from point to point along axon
( saltatory conduction)
also consumes less energy, as the pumping of sodium
and potassium ions need occur only at the nodes.

 Pituitary gland (master) beneath hypothalamus

-release adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH)
Cortisol increases by adrenal glands
-help use body more glucose/fat for energy
-help manage stress (In stress, cortisol and epinephrine increses)

Serotonin-pineal gland-modulate sleep pattern

(seasonal/circadian rhythm)
Oxytocin-hypothalamus stored in pituitary
contraction of uterus to start labor (as medicine)
-social bonding-love hormone-milk production

Prostate-fluid component of semen

Testosterone-control physical features-hair, voce in
male

 Oxytocin-hypothalamus stored in pituitary

contraction of uterus to start labor (as medicine)
-social bonding-love hormone-milk production

Prostate-fluid component of semen

Testosterone-control physical features-hair, voce
in male

Evaluation of organ function and

diagnosis of disease