CAMBRIDGE SECONDARY ONE

SCIENCE
CHAPTER 8: THE EARTH

8.1 ROCKS, MINERALS AND SOILS

The surface of the Earth is covered with

rocks, minerals and soil which form the
Earths crust.
Scientists who study rocks are called
geologists.
Rocks are made of grains of different
minerals. Each mineral is made up of one
chemical substance.

8.1 ROCKS, MINERALS AND SOILS

In some rocks, the minerals form small

crystals. In other rocks, the crystals are
much larger.
Granite is a rock made from large crystals
of 3 different minerals, namely quartz,
feldspar and mica.

8.1 ROCKS, MINERALS AND SOILS

Granite consists of quartz, feldspar and mica

8.1 ROCKS, MINERALS AND SOILS

Soil is made from rocks, minerals and

humus (decayed organic matter).
Soils have different properties because:
(i) The sand and clay particles may be of
different sizes
(ii) They contain different amount of humus

8.1 ROCKS, MINERALS AND SOILS

Video on humus:

8.1 ROCKS, MINERALS AND SOILS

Sand particles contain larger air spaces than clay particles

8.2 SOIL

Sandy soils drain very quickly but clay

soils hold water for a long time. This
is because sand particles have larger air
spaces between them than clay particles.
Drainage of water is important for the
survival of crops. Farmers sometimes
treat the soil to improve the drainage.

8.2 SOIL

Raised beds can be used to improve drainage of clay soil

8.3 IGNEOUS ROCKS

Rocks are classified based on the way

they are formed.
Magma

Igneous rocks

Cools deep underground

(cools very slowly)
- Granite is formed
because enough time for
large crystals to form

Cools near the surface

(cools more quickly)
- Basalt is formed because
there is only enough time
for small crystals to form

Cools at the surface (cools

very quickly)
- Obsidian is formed because
there is not enough time for
crystals to form at all

8.3 IGNEOUS ROCKS

The type of rock formed also depends on

the sample of magma as they contain
different minerals in different quantities.
When magma reaches the surface of the
Earth it is called lava. The lava erupts
from volcanoes.

8.3 IGNEOUS ROCKS

Difference between magma and lava

8.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Rivers often carry lots of sediment.

Sedimentary rocks are made from little
grains of sediment that are stuck
together.

8.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Layers of sediment form on the sea bed

8.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Formation of sedimentary rock

Layers of sediments
settle on the sea bed

As more layers build up

on top of them, the
weight of the new layers
presses down on older
sediments. The pressure
presses water out

Sometimes, the dead

remains of plants and
animals fall into the
sediment and become
part of the rock. They
may form fossils

Chemical changes form

a sedimentary rock

8.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sometimes contain
fossils

Has layers

Porous
Characteristics
of sedimentary
rocks

8.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Gap
Grains in a sedimentary rock have tiny
gaps between them

8.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock formed

when grains of sand were pressed
together.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock formed
from little fragments of shells from animals
such as corals. The grains are made from
calcium carbonate.

8.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

These sandstone rocks are made of

orange sand particles compressed
together

Limestone is often almost white

because it is made of calcium
carbonate

8.5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks are formed when heat

and pressure change other rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are usually harder
and non-porous than the rocks from which
they are formed form.

8.5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks can also be formed

when the Earths surface moves. For
example, in an earthquake, rocks may get
pushed against each other. The grains in
the rocks may get crushed and forced
very
close together.

8.5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Limestone
to marble

Sandstone
to quartzite

Formation of metamorphic rocks

8.6 WEATHERING

Rocks are worn away by weathering.

Weathering

Chemical weathering

Physical weathering

Biotic weathering

Slightly acidic
rainwater attacks
limestone

Water enters cracks in rocks and when it

freezes, it expands and makes the cracks
larger. Heat from the Sun makes the rocks
expand and at night, the temperature falls
and the rocks contract. This can cause the
rocks to crack over a long period of time

Plants can grow in

the cracks in rocks
and cause damage
to the rocks

8.7 MOVING ROCKS

Rocks can be broken up into pieces by

weathering. The rock fragments are
moved by gravity, water and wind
(erosion).
Rivers carry rock fragments to the sea.
Smaller fragments are carried further than
larger ones.
Layers of mud and sand build up at the
bottom of the sea and form sedimentary rocks

8.7 MOVING ROCKS

Processes that cause changes in rocks

8.8 FOSSILS

When animals and plants die, their bodies

may fall into sediments and can become
part of the sedimentary rocks (fossils).
Fossils tell us how some rocks were
formed and about the plants and animals
that lived millions of years ago.
Limestone contains fossils from sea
animals and plants. So we know limestone
was formed under the sea.

8.8 FOSSILS

Formation of a fossil
A dead organism is
buried in mud

As it slowly decays
and dissolves,
minerals seep in
and gradually
replace the tissues

The mud around

the shape also turn
into rock. A fossil
has been formed

The minerals
become rock in the
shape of the
organism

8.8 FOSSILS

Coal may contain fossils of ferns. So we

know that coal was not formed under the
sea. Coal was formed when plants fell into
swamps millions of years ago.

8.9 THE FOSSIL RECORD

The fossil record tells us when different

species of animals and plants first
appeared, when the species disappeared
and how the species changed over time.

8.9 THE FOSSIL RECORD

This diagram shows the fossils of horses that have

been found at different levels in rocks. The deeper the
rock, the older it is. The fossils shows that horses have

8.9 THE FOSSIL RECORD

Sometimes fossils that are found in older

rocks are not found in younger rocks.
This tells us that this type of organism is
extinct.

8.10 THE STRUCTURE AND AGE OF THE EARTH

The Earth is made up of the core, mantle

and crust.

The structure of the Earth

8.10 THE STRUCTURE AND AGE OF THE EARTH

The Earth is more than 4.28 billion years

old.
The surface of the Earth is made up of
tectonic plates which move slowly on the
molten magma underneath them.

8.10 THE STRUCTURE AND AGE OF THE EARTH

Scientists study rocks from the Moon and

meteorites to work out the age of the
Earth. A meteorite is a fragment of rock
from the space that falls to Earth.
Scientists have found meteorites that are
4.5 billion years old. They think that the
Earth is the same age as these meteorites.

8.10 THE STRUCTURE AND AGE OF THE EARTH

The differences between meteoroid, meteor and meteorite

8.11 THE GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE

The huge lengths of time in the history of

the Earth are divided into eras and
periods. Each era is divided into several
periods.

8.11 THE GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE

Geological timescale

8.11 THE GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE

When tectonic plates move and bump into

one another, old rocks can be brought to
the surface. Erosion can also wear away
rocks, exposing older ones underneath
them.

8.11 THE GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE

Ways the tectonic plates move