Numerical

Relaying
.

Why Numerical Relaying

The first and foremost driving force for advances in relaying systems is the need to improve reliability.
In turn, this implies increase in dependability as well as security.
This need to improve reliability propelled the development of solid state relays.
Solid state relays have inherent self checking facility which was not available with electromechanical
relays.
This feature is also available with numerical relays
For example, when we boot a computer, it goes through a self checking phase where in it checks RAM,
hard disk, etc.
Also, with the reduced cost of computer hardware, and an exponential growth in processing capability,
numerical relays can provide high performance at moderate costs.
Since, numerical relays are based on digital technology, they are more or less immune to variation or
drift in parameters of individual components like OP-AMPS etc. due to changes in temperature, ageing
etc.
Numerical relays also help in reducing burden (volt-amperes) of Current Transformer (CT) and Voltage
Transformer (VT).
This is desirable because ideally sensors should not consume any power.
If a sensor consumes energy from the measure end, it will automatically distort the signal.
This problem is further aggravated in CTs due to non-linearity of iron core.
Numerical relays offer very low impedance to the secondary of CT and hence reduce burden on CT.
Numerical protection devices offer several advantages in terms of protection, reliability, troubleshooting
and fault information.

Why Numerical Relaying

Numerical relays permit much more flexibility than their electromechanical and solid state
counterparts.
In electromechanical relays, the constructional details like magnetic path, air gap etc., are used
to design various operating characteristics.
Since, solid state relays mainly use analog circuit, they permit more innovation than
corresponding electromechanical relays which are no doubt robust.
However, solid state relays can not have the kind of flexibility that computer aided relaying
can have.
For example, providing magnitude scaling and phase shift to a voltage signal to generate line
to line voltage from phase to neutral voltage is much simpler with computer aided relaying
because it can be handled by the program.
A computer relay can be programmed. Further, due to the programming feature, it is possible
to have generic hardware for multiple relays, which reduces the cost of inventory.
The first protection devices based on microprocessors were employed in 1985.
The widespread acceptance of numerical technology by the customer and the experiences of
the user helped in developing the second generation numerical relays in 1990.
Modern power system protection devices are built with integrated functions.
Multi-functions like protection, control, monitoring and measuring are available today in
numeric power system protection devices.
Also, the communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring
and data transfer.

Why Numerical Relaying

Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection relays offered single-function, single

characteristics, whereas modern numeric protection offers multi-function and multiple
characteristics.
Some protections also offer adaptable characteristics, which dynamically change the
protection characteristic under different system conditions by monitoring the input parameters.
The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays (electromechanical and static)
are fewer than those of the numerical technique, which can differ in many aspects like the type
of protection algorithm used, sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software
discipline, etc.
First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay protection
characteristic, whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable of providing complete
protection with added functions like control and monitoring.
Numerical protection devices offer several advantages in terms of protection, reliability, and
trouble shooting and fault information.
Numerical protection devices are available for generation, transmission and distribution
systems.
Digital protection can bephysically smaller, and almost always requires
less panel wiring than equivalent functions implemented using analog
technology.

Why Numerical Relaying

Numerical relaying along with developments in fiber optic communication have pioneered development of
automated substations.
Once, the analog signals from CTs and VTs are digitized, they can be converted to optical signals and
transmitted on substation LAN using fiber optic network.
With high level of EMI immunity offered by fiber optic cable, it has become the transmission medium by
choice in substation environment.
Numerical relays can be nicely interfaced with a substation LAN.
This in turn should be contrasted with legacy substations where in lead wires have to run from each CT and
VT to the control panel.
This not only reduces wiring complexity in the substation but also reduces burden on the CT as resistances of
long lead wires are eliminated.
Further, a single fiber optic LAN permits multiplexing of multiple analog signals which is not possible with
legacy arrangement.
Numerical relays also permit development of new functions as well as development of adaptive relaying
schemes.
Traditionally, relaying systems are designed and set in a conservative manner.
They represent compromise between:
economy and performance
dependability and security
complexity and simplicity
speed and accuracy
credible and conceivable

Why Numerical Relaying

Adaptive relaying is meant to minimize such compromises and also allow relays to fine-tune
to existing system conditions.
Numerical relays also permit storage of pre and post fault data (of the order of few cycles).
This data can also be time stamped, now-a-days by Geographical Positioning System (GPS).
GPS systems (a cluster of 24 satellites of pentagon, USA) not only provides positional
information but also a time pulse every second for synchronization of sampling.
A phasor measurement unit (PMU), also known as synchrophasor, is a device capable of
measuring power system voltage and current phasors at a rate of thousands of samples per
second
The samples are time-stamped with 1 microsecond or better accuracy to a common absolute
time reference provided by the Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers attached to PMUs
IRIG-B is the most commonly used time standard in US substations.
IRIG-B is a standard for representing time
It is done now with the IRIG-B Protocol available with the GPS Clock.
It does not define the physical port.
Can be also be transmitted over RS232, RS485 and serial fiber opt
IRIG-B is used to synchronize the internal clocks of RTUs and IEDs
IRIG-B can ensure accuracy of time-stamped events from different substation to be accurate to
1ms.

Why Numerical Relaying

Efficient power transmission and distribution would benefit from synchronized near-real-time
measurements of voltage and current phasors at widely dispersed locations in an electric power
grid.
Such measurements also have the promise to enable effective real-time system monitoring and
control, which have been considered to be the key to preventing wide-scale cascading outages.
Thus, in principle, every sample and every event like closing or opening of breakers can be time
stamped.
This helps in postmortem analysis which is used to determine whether (1) a relay operated
correctly (or incorrectly) and (2) any other relaying system or device (like circuit breaker) has
failed to operate.
Time stamping of relay operation allows us to capture the sequence of relay operations.
Thus, in a complex situation like catastrophic failure of the power system (brown out or black
out), it is now possible to precisely determine the sequence of relay operations.
This helps engineers to capture and simulate the disturbance using transient stability, (EMTP)
programs.
Such simulation studies help in understanding shortcomings of the existing systems and thereby
improvising them.
In this role, a numerical relay is analogous to a fault data recorder (FDR).

Why Numerical Relaying

Numerical relays also simplify

interfacing with CTs and VTs.
Consider a protective function which
requires zero sequence voltage.
Traditionally, it would be generated
by open delta VT connection shown in
fig.
If zero sequence current is also
required, it is obtained by using an
additional CT in the ground wire.
With numerical relays, zero sequence
voltages and currents can be derived
inside the processor from the phase
voltage (Va, Vb, Vc) and line currents
(Ia, Ib and Ic).

Why Numerical Relaying

In differential protection e.g., three phase transformer protection, traditional protection

schemes also require additional care to handle polarity, scaling and phase shifting problems.
This may even necessitate use of an auxiliary CT.
Such complications can be resolved with ease when numerical relays are used.

Advantages of numerical relays

Compact Size
In the case of electromechanical relay, there is a need for mechanical comparison devices. This
amounts for the bulky size of the relay. Then, there is a need for a flag system for activation
confirmation of relay.
As opposed to this, the numerical relay relies on one system for all approach and use
indication on LCD for relay activation, ensuring less space.
An important fact to note is that digital protection can be made physically smaller. This is on
the account that it needs less panel wiring than equivalent functions implemented using analog
tech.
Flexibility
Since the numerical relay system relies on software, customized modifications can be made for
getting the desired protection features. This saves you the cost of replacing hardware.
Reliability
One basic problem with electromechanical relays is that because of larger components and
mass interconnection, component non reliability can be an issue. In the case of numerical
relays, fewer interconnections ensure reliability.

Advantages of numerical relays

Multiple relay characteristics

The range of operation of traditional models is narrow while numerical relays are diverse and
evolution adaptable. This property of multitasking is further strengthened on the account that
the numerical system can accommodate different types of relay characteristics.
Since, it is possible to provide better compatible protection characteristics, the efficiency
improves. This is achieved with the memory save feature in the microprocessor
Communication capacity
Among the most significant advantages of a numerical relays is its ability to cater to digital
communication. An interface is added which brings microprocessor based relay property.
Substation LAN coupled with fiber optics complete the communication capacity.
The property is directly linked to the data history feature of the numerical relay system.
Because of data storage systems, the availability of fault data and disturbance record can be
made. This helps in finding the nature/magnitude/duration of the fault.
Auto reset
It has also been highlighted how the system is flexible. In addition to this, it also has the
feature of auto resetting and self-diagnosis.
As opposed to numerical relay systems, electromechanical systems do not have the ability to
check if normal condition has been attained once activated. The self-diagnose and self-reset
features provide less dependence on operating personnel.

Advantages of numerical relays

By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and
maintenance cost over electromechanical relays
Separate connection is not required, zero sequence voltages and currents can be derived inside
the processor.
Basic hardware is shared between multiple functions, the cost of individual protection
functions can be reduced significantly.
Loss of voltage feature helps lock the relay in case of momentary/permanent loss of voltage.
Low burden, The microprocessor based relays have minimum burden on
the instrument transformers.
Sensitivity, Greater sensitivity and high pickup ratio.
Speed, With static relays, tripping time of cycle or even less can be
obtained.
Fast Resetting, Resetting is less.
Has Self checking facility
Permit Historical data storage
Fiber optical communication with substation LAN
Allow GPS (Geographical Positioning System) Time stamping
Numerical relays simplify interfacing with CTs and VTs

Drawback of numerical relay

Short life cycle

Susceptibility to transients

Numerical relay models

Numerical relay models can be divided into two categories.

The models of the first category consider only the fundamental frequency
components of voltages and currents.
Phasor based models were the first to be widely used to design and apply relays.
The models of the second category take into consideration the high frequency and
decaying DC components of voltages and currents in addition to the fundamental
frequency components.
These models are called transient models of relays.
Due to processing capacity of numerical relays many protection criteria can be
implemented.
Protection relays, such as other monitoring and control equipments have taken the
advantage from the increasing improvement of the semiconductor industry and the
enormous number of digital signal processing and control algorithms.
The latest generations of protective relays be provided with a large capacity of
processing capabilities become more efficient and can perform a numerous number
of functions such as fault locators, integrated monitoring and control functions.

Basic structure of numerical relays

Two main parts

(1) Hardware
(2) Software
software embedded in a relay decides not only its characteristics but its function as well, i.e.,
whether it is an over current, differential or impedance-based measuring device.
An integral and important part of the software is the algorithm, which is a set of mathematical
instructions used to process input currents and/or voltages to estimate system parameters such as
the RMS values of the signal components, measured impedance, fundamental frequency and
differential currents etc.
These calculated parameters are then used to decide whether the system is sound or faulty, and
consequently initiate the action necessary to isolate the faulted section.
Different types of algorithms developed for numerical protection applications maybe broadly
classified as:
Sinusoidal waveform-based algorithms, which include algorithms such as sample and first
derivatives, first and second derivatives, two-sample techniques and three-sample techniques.
Fourier and Walsh-based techniques.
Least-square methods.
Solution of the differential equations of a protected-system model.
Travelling-wave-based methods.

Relay Hardware

Block Diagram
Fig below shows the functional block diagram of a digital relay.
It can be seen that a digital relay consists of:
Analog input subsystem
Digital input subsystem
Digital output subsystem
A processor along with RAM (data scratch pad), main memory (historical data file) and power
supply.

Analog Input Subsystem

The 3- voltage and current signals are analog in nature.

Isolation and analog signal scaling
Current and voltage waveforms from instrument transformers are acquired and scaled down to convenient
voltage levels for use in the digital and numerical relays.
Finally, an antialiasing filter is used after signal conditioning hardware.
Analog anti-aliasing filtering
Low-pass filters are used to avoid the phenomena of aliasing in which the high frequency components of
the inputs appear to be parts of the fundamental frequency components.
Anti aliasing filter is a low pass filter (LPF) used to cut off the high frequency content (including noise)
in the input signal.
The analog inputs must be applied to low-pass filters and their outputs should be sampled and quantized.
The use of low-pass filter is necessary to limit the effects of noise and unwanted components of
frequencies.
The cutoff frequency of LPF and the sampling rate have to be properly matched.

Signal flow diagram of numerical relay

Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC)

Because digital processors can process numerical or logical data only, the waveforms of inputs
must be sampled at discrete times. To achieve this, each analog signal is passed through a
sample- and-hold module, and conveyed, one at a time, to an Analog-to-Digital Converter
(ADC) by a multiplexer (Mux), as shown in figure.
This functionality is provided by the analog input subsystem.
Typically, it consists of sample and hold circuit, Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and
multiplexer interfaced to the processor.
The digital input data consists of Circuit Breaker (CB) status (open or close).
The digital output is relay's operate / do not operate decision.
Once, the data is acquired within RAM, it is filtered by a digital filter and processed by the
relay logic

Sample and Hold Circuit

The analog information is held by a Sample and Hold circuit.

Any A/D converter requires a finite conversion time.
A S & H circuit which conceptually is a shunt capacitor with a switch holds the information
(in terms of voltage).
While the conversion takes place, switch is in open position.
This is known as the `hold' state. When the switch is closed, the Vout of S and H follows the
Vin.

Sampling Scheme

There are two commonly used schemes for configuring the analog input subsystem.
One is known as the 'simultaneous' & other 'non-simultaneous' scheme.
Non-Simultaneous Sampling Scheme
Fig below illustrates non-simultaneous sampling scheme.
In this scheme, a multiplexer selects the analog channel sequentially.
Typically, power system applications involve more than one analog input.
To reduce the cost of the hardware, multiple channels are multiplexed through analog
multiplexer to a single ADC.
An analog multiplexer permits a single output line to mirror the signal at the selected input,
say one of the 3 voltages/ 3 currents.

Non-Simultaneous Sampling Scheme

In the scheme illustrated in figure, it can be observed

that In the Non-simultaneous
sampling scheme, relative pharos information between
two signals is not preserved.
This is because the samples from different inputs are
not obtained at same instant of time.
One way to overcome, this hardware limitation is to
interpolate the value of the sample from previous values.
Fig illustrates the concept.
Let Va(t) be sampled first and then Vb(t) be sampled.
The first two samples of 'a' & 'b' phases are given by
points 'A' and 'C'. After one sampling interval, samples
'B' and 'D' are obtained, for phases 'a' and 'b'
respectively.
The problem is to estimate value of Vb(t) at the
sampling instant for 'a' i.e. say at sample 'B'.
This can be obtained by linear interpolation for samples
'C' and 'D' and corresponding to point 'E'.

Simultaneous Sampling Scheme

Fig shows a simultaneous sampling

scheme.
In this scheme, all S&H amplifiers
are set to hold state simultaneously.
This preserves the relative phase
information between multiple analog
signals. Then, the multiplexer selects
the channel sequentially.
Typically, digital relays use
successive ADC which have a
conversion time of 15-30 s.
The sampling rate must satisfy
Nyquist criteria.

Source Impedance

Most signal sources have impedances of less than 1.5 k , so such a maximum source impedance
is usually not a problem.
However, faster multiplexer rates require lower source impedances.
For example, a 1 MHz multiplexer in a 12-bit system requires a source impedance less than 1.0 k
.
When the source impedance exceeds this value, buffering is necessary to improve accuracy. A
buffer is an amplifier with a high input impedance and extremely low output impedance. (See
Figure below)
A buffer on each channel located between the transducer and the multiplexer ensures higher
accuracies by preventing the multiplexers stray capacitance from discharging through the
impedance of the transducer.

Buffering signals ahead of the multiplexer increases

accuracy, especially with high-impedance sources of fast
multiplexers

Multiplexer

Thus, multiplexer is a collection of analog switches.

Each channel can be selected by supplying appropriate binary code to the multiplexer e.g. for 8channel multiplexer, 3 bit address space is required.
A chip disable line permits parallel expansion if external logic is used to select desired multiplexer.
A multiplexer has two inputs (terminals) for a single channel.
It provides better noise immunity.
Accuracy of the analog multiplexer depends on load impedance at the output terminal.
Typical recommended value is 107 to 108.
As Sample (S) and Hold (H) circuit has impedance in the range 108 - 1012, no problem is encountered.
Channel-to-channel cross talk is another non-ideal characteristic of analog switching networks,
especially integrated circuit multiplexers.
Cross talk develops when the voltage applied to any one channel affects the accuracy of the reading in
another channel.
Conditions are optimum for cross talk when signals of relatively high frequency and high magnitude
such as 4 to 5 V signals are connected to one channel while 100 mV signals are connected to an
adjacent channel.
High frequency multiplexing also aggravate cross talk because the signals couple through a small
capacitance between switch channels.
Low source impedance minimizes the cross talk and eliminates the charge injection.

Digital filter

Digital filters have, for many years, been the most common application of digital signal processors.
There are two basic forms of digital filters, the Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filter and Infinite
Impulse Response (IIR) filter.
The main draw back to the use of IIR filters in digital protection relays is that the group delay
cannot be specified in the design process.
This makes their use in protection somewhat tedious in general, FIR filters are usually the preferred
type.

Relaying hardware for Metering

In principle, the hardware setup shown in previous fig. can be used for both measurement and
protection function.
However, considering the order of difference between current magnitudes in case of fault and
load, there can be loss of accuracy during metering applications.
Consider a hypothetical case where in maximum load current is 100A and maximum fault current
is 20 times this load current (2000A).
Let a 12 bit unipolar ADC be used for sampling current signal.
This implies that resolution of ADC is 2000/(2**12-1)=0.488 A.
This resolution may be inadequate for metering purposes.
One solution is to increase resolution i.e. the number of bits in ADC.
For example, one may use 16 bit ADC in place of 12 bit ADC.
However, increasing the number of bits of ADC also affects the selection of processor.
A good design guideline is to choose a processor with double the number of bits of ADC.
This ensures that truncation and numerical precision problems associated with finite precision
arithmetic do not cause significant loss of accuracy.
For example, with 16 bit ADC, 32 bit processor is the natural choice.
Alternatively, a variable gain amplifier can be used along with the ADC.
At low currents, high gain setting is used and at high currents low gain setting is preferred.
However, during the change from one setting to another, loss of information can take place.
Therefore, a simple solution would be to keep metering and protection functionality separately.

Open System Relaying

Open system relaying motivated by experiences from energy management field where in a plethora
of manufacturers specific equipment has led to difficulty in expanding the system without changing
the entire existing SCADA (system control and data acquisition) system.
Open system movement encourages standard based development, thereby permitting incremental or
evolutionary growth.
This has to be contrasted with proprietary solutions that required either a complete changeover or
force the utility to a vendor.
Consider a case of two vendors (A and B) supplying a Remote Terminal Units (RTUs)to a utility C.
Let us consider that initially, the utility had procured the SCADA system from the manufacturer A.
At a later date, the utility wants to add RTUs from the vendor B because it has cost and performance
benefits.
If the initial solution provided by vendor A was proprietary, it will not be possible for RTUs of
vendor B to be interfaced with SCADA system supplied by vendor A.
This restricts cross migration and hence it is unfair.
On the other hand, if the initial SCADA system was based on open standards, then the device of
another vendor using the same standard could be interfaced with ease.
This is the basic idea behind any open systems movement.
An open relay conceptually consists of two separate 'boxes'. (1) standard computer. (2) the scalable
analog input subsystem.
The processing board which may have multiple DSPs is plugged onto PC motherboard and once
programmed can run independently of the PC.
Such a relay may be interfaced with substation LAN using standard protocol.

Why Digital Signal Processing?

Digital relaying involves digital processing of one or more analog signals. It involves
following three steps:
1. Conversion of analog signal to digital form.
2. Processing of digital form.
3. Boolean decision to trip or not to trip.
Usually in DSP, after processing information in discrete domain, it has to be converted back to
analog domain.
However, for us the step- 3 does not involve conversion of processed signals back to analog
form.

Why Digital Signal Processing?

At this point, a worthwhile observation is that direct analog signal processing is conceptually
much simpler.
Some of the advantages of digital processing are as follows:
Operation of digital circuits do not depend on precise values of digital signals.
As a result, a digital circuit is less sensitive to tolerances of component values.
A digital circuit has little sensitivity to temperature, aging and other external parameters.
In terms of economics of volume, a digital circuit can be reproduced easily in volume
quantities.
With VLSI circuits, it is possible to integrate highly sophisticated and complex digital signal
processing systems on a single chip.
In DSP, accuracy of computation can be increased by increasing word length.
With the availability of floating point arithmetic in digital signal processors, dynamic ranges
of signal and coefficients can be increased.
A signal processor can process many signals, reducing processing cost per signal.
Digital implementation allows the realization of certain characteristics not possible with
analog implementation; such as polygon in R-X plane for distance relaying.
Digital signals can be stored indefinitely without loss of accuracy.
There are also some disadvantages with DSP.
DSP contains active devices. Active devices are less reliable than passive components.
Passive components consume less power than active devices.

ADC

Nyquist Theorem

Transforming a signal from the time domain to the frequency domain requires the application of the
Nyquist theorem.
Nyquist Theorem: Sampling rate (f s) > 2 * highest frequency component (of interest) in the measured
signal The Nyquist theorem states that a signal must be sampled at a rate greater than twice the highest
frequency component of interest in the signal to capture the highest frequency component of interest;
otherwise, the high-frequency content will alias at a frequency inside the spectrum of interest (passband).
This means that capturing a signal with a maximum frequency component of fmax requires that it must
be sampled at 2fmax or higher.
However, common practice dictates that while working in the frequency domain, the sampling rate
must be set more than twice and preferably between five and ten times the signals highest frequency
component.
Waveforms viewed in the time domain are usually sampled 10 times the frequency being measured to
faithfully reproduce the original signal and retain accuracy of the signals highest frequency
components.

Nyquist Theorem

Nyquist Theorem

Nyquist Theorem

Nyquist Theorem

Aliasing

Any analog signal consists of components at various frequencies. The simplest case is the
sinewave, in which all the signal energy is concentrated at one frequency.
In practice, analog signals usually have complex waveforms, with components at many
frequencies.
The highest frequency component in an analog signal determines the bandwidth of that
signal.
The higher the frequency, the greater the bandwidth, if all other factors are held constant.
Suppose the highest frequency component, in hertz, for a given analog signal is fmax.
According to the Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2fmax, or twice the
highest analog frequency component.
The sampling in an analog-to-digital converter is actuated by a pulse generator (clock).
If the sampling rate is less than 2fmax, some of the highest frequency components in the analog
input signal will not be correctly represented in the digitized output.
When such a digital signal is converted back to analog form by a digital-to-analog converter,
false frequency components appear that were not in the original analog signal.
This undesirable condition is a form of distortion called aliasing.
Aliasing occurs when a signal is under sampled. If the signal sampling rate is too low, we get
frequency-domain aliasing.

Aliasing

If a signal is sampled at a sampling rate smaller than twice the Nyquist frequency, false lower
frequency component(s) appears in the sampled data. This phenomenon is called Aliasing
When sampling an ac signal at less than two times the Nyquist frequency, the original
waveform cannot be reproduced faithfully.
When ac inputs are sampled more than twice the Nyquist frequency of the sine wave, the
frequency content of the signal is preserved, and all the Fourier components of the periodic
waveform are recovered.
When input signals are sampled at less than the Nyquist rate, ambiguous signals that are much
lower in frequency than the signal being sampled can appear in the time domain.
This phenomenon is called aliasing.
Conversely, input frequencies of half or more of the sampling rate will also generate aliases.
To prevent these aliases, a lowpass, anti-aliasing filter is used to remove all components of
these input signals.
The filter is usually an analog circuit placed between the signal input terminals and the ADC.
Although the filter eliminates the aliases, it also prevents any other signals from passing
through that are above the stop band of the filter, whether they were wanted or not.
In other words, when selecting a data acquisition system, make certain that the per channel
sampling frequency is more than twice the highest frequency intended to be measured.

Aliasing

These types of systems primarily utilize low-pass filters, digital filters or a combination of
both.
With the analog low-pass filter, high frequency noise and interference can be removed from
the signal path prior to the analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion.
In this manner, the digital output code of the conversion does not contain undesirable aliased
harmonic information.
An Anti-Aliasing filter is a low pass filter (LPF) used to cut off the high frequency content in
the input signal, connected after signal conditioning hardware

Example
Assume fs, the sampling frequency, is 100 Hz and that the input signal contains the following frequencies:
25 Hz, 70 Hz, 160 Hz, and 510 Hz. These frequencies are shown in the following figure.

Original frequencies present in the input signal

As shown in the following figure, frequencies below the Nyquist frequency (fs/2 = 50 Hz) are
sampled correctly. Frequencies above the Nyquist frequency appear as aliases. For example, F1
(25 Hz) appears at the correct frequency, but F2 (70 Hz), F3 (160 Hz), and F4 (510 Hz) have
aliases at 30 Hz, 40 Hz, and 10 Hz, respectively.

Original and aliased frequencies that appear in the measured signal after
passing
through
a ADC 70| = 30 Hz
Alias
F2 = |100

Alias F3 = | (2)100 160| = 40 Hz

Alias F4 = | (5)100 510| = 10 Hz

An interesting analog can be drawn by considering a room having many

mirrors each reflecting image from one to another. It is seen that if a
person is standing in such a room, another observer cannot distinguish
him from his image. The difficulty can be resolved if the observer has
an idea of location or coordinates of the real person. In the same
manner, we can identify the original lobe from replicated lobes if we
have an idea of the frequency content of original signal. In fig 28.5,
notice that lobes are distinctly separated because s > 2B Hz . On the
other hand, if s = 2B Hz , then as seen in fig 28.6, lobes will just touch
each other. If however, s < 2B Hz, then lobes will overlap (fig 28.7) and
this will lead to distortion of replicated frequency spectrum. Thus, it is
necessary that s the sampling frequency should atleast equal to 2B Hz.

Thus, we can classify sampling frequency into three categories.

1.

Sampling at a rate

2.

Sampling at a rate

3.

Sampling at a rate