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Use formal data sheets or notebooks to record all data and other
observations.
Calibrate all your measuring instruments for its validity before you start
using them. Read or review equipment manuals for instrument accuracy
and precision.
When recording data, write down each entry clearly and eligibly. Do not
erase your data or observations, even if it is a mistake. Simply cancels it by
drawing a line across it. This is just in case when you want to refer to it later.
Have your data verified before leaving the laboratory. Often your instructor
or lab assistant will be able to help you confirming your results. Some data
sheet even requires an endorsement from the respective authority.
Exponential: y = a e mx
When plotted on semilog paper will be linear
In log form
log y=mx log e + log a
Power : y = ax
In log form
Periodic : y = sin
repeats its values in regular intervals or periods. The most important
examples are the trigonometric functions, which repeat over intervals of
length 2.
are used throughout science to describe oscillations, waves, and other
phenomena that exhibit periodicity
y2 y1
m
x2 x1
(1)
y*
x
The best straight line would be the one that minimize the total
error. Several criteria may be used. However, a more practical
criterion for least-squares approach is to minimize the sum of the
squares of the residuals (Sr), that is
n
minimize Sx =
=
2
i
i 1
y
i 1
mxi ci
Thus, we need to determine the value of m and c that fulfills the equation. This can
be achieved by differentiating with respect to each coefficient and set the
derivatives equal to zero. The differentiations are not presented here. The resulting
expressions are:
nc + m xi = yi
c xi + m xi2 = xi yi
In matrix
form=>
xi c
xi
2
x
i m
yi
xi yi
m=
C=
x y x y
n x x
i
2
i
m
n
x y x y
n x x n y y
n
r=
Interpretation of r,
r=1
2
i
2
i
the straight line is a good fit to the data (i.e all the data lie precisely on the line)
r=0
the straight line is not a good fit to the data (i.e data scattered randomly and do
not fit a straight line)
0<r<1
For example, when r = 0.8, then 100(0.8)2 = 64 % which may be interpreted as 64% of change in y is due to change in x.
Statistical Analysis
Science of decision making in uncertain situation
n
mean, x i 1
xi x 2
0.5
x x
: SD entire population ,
n n 1
: var iance, s 2
x
i
n 1
0.5
Example : Fit a least square line to following data and find trend value
X
There are 5 data points => n = 5. Constructing the table for various terms as
follows.
xi
yi
xi2
x i yi
yi2