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A Seismic Section
The figure above shows a stacked seismic section recorded over the shallow
Cretaceous in Alberta. How would you interpret this section?
3
Structural Interpretation
Your eye may first go to an anticlinal seismic event between 630 and 640 ms. Here, it
has been picked and called H1. A seismic interpreter prior to 1970 would have looked
only at structure and perhaps have located a well at CDP 330.
4
And, in this case, he or she would have been right! A successful gas well was drilled at
that location. The figure above shows the sonic log, integrated to time, spliced on the
section. The gas sand top and base are shown as black lines on the log.
5
Bright Spots
But this would have been a lucky guess, since structure alone does not tell you that a
gas sand is present. A geophysicist in the 1970s would have based the well on the fact
that there is a bright spot visible on the seismic section, as indicated above.
6
Geology
Seismic
Seismic
raypath
Interface at
depth = d
Shale
1 V1
Gas Sand
2 V2
Reflection at time
t = 2d/V1
R0
2V2 1V1
2V2 1V1
Seismic
Wavelet
1 VP1 VS1
2 1
Reflector
2 VP2 VS2
The traces in a seismic gather reflect from the subsurface at increasing
angles of incidence . The first order approximation to the reflection
coefficients as a function of angle is given by adding a second term to the
zero-offset reflection coefficient:
R( ) R0 B sin 2
P and S-Waves
Note that we can also record S wave information.
(a)
(b)
(c)
AVO Modeling
P-wave
Density
S-wave
Poissons
ratio
Synthetic
Offset Stack
Based on AVO theory and the rock physics of the reservoir, we can perform AVO
modeling, as shown above. Note that the model result is a fairly good match to the
offset stack. Poissons ratio is a function of Vp/Vs ratio and will be discussed in the
next chapter.
13
AVO Attributes
Intercept: A
Gradient: B
AVO Attributes are
used to analyze
large volumes of
seismic data,
looking for
hydrocarbon
anomalies.
14
Cross-Plotting of Attributes
Gradient (B)
Intercept (A)
15
AVO Inversion
A new tool combines
inversion with AVO
Analysis to enhance the
reservoir discrimination.
Here, we have inverted for
P-impedance and Vp/Vs
ratio, cross-plotted and
identified a gas sand.
Gas
Sand
16
Wave Eq.
Synthetics
Zoeppritz
Synthetics
Recon Methods
Partial
Stacks
Intercept
Gradient
Cross
Plot
Inversion
Elastic
Impedance
Simultaneous
Inversion
LMR
17
Conclusions
18
Rock Matrix
Pores / Fluid
20
Density
Density effects can be modeled with the following equation:
sat m (1 ) w S w hc (1 S w )
where : density,
porosity,
S w water saturation,
sat,m,hc, w saturated, matrix,
hydrocarbon, water subscripts.
This is illustrated in the next graph.
21
23
P-waves
S-waves
24
2
VP
VS
25
VP
4
K
3
VS
26
If we apply a compressional
force to a cylindrical piece of
rock, as shown on the right, we
change its shape.
R
R+R
L+L
F (Force)
The Poissons ratio, , is defined as the negative of the ratio
between the transverse and longitudinal strains:
(R / R) /(L / L)
(In the typical case shown above, L is negative, so is positive)
27
2 2
2
2 2
VP
where :
VS
This formula is more useful in our calculations than the formula given
by the ratio of the strains. The inverse to the above formula, allowing
us to derive VP or VS from , is given by:
2 2
2 1
2
28
Poisson's Ratio
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
0
Gas Case
Wet Case
10
Vp/Vs
29
Poissons Ratio
From the previous figure, note that there are several values of
Poissons ratio and VP/VS ratio that are important to remember.
If VP/VS = 2, then = 0
If VP/VS = 1.5, then = 0.1 (Gas Case)
If VP/VS = 2, then = 1/3 (Wet Case)
If VP/VS = , then = 0.5 (VS = 0)
Note also from the previous figure that Poissons ratio can
theoretically be negative, but this has only been observed for
materials created in the lab (e.g. Goretex and polymer foams).
30
31
VP _ sat
4
K sat sat
3
sat
VS _ sat
sat
sat
sat m (1 ) w S w hc (1 S w )
In the Biot-Gassmann equations, the shear modulus does not change for
varying saturation at constant porosity. In equations:
sat dry
32
Dry rock
frame, or
skeleton
(pores
empty)
Rock Matrix
Saturated
Rock
(pores full)
(1)
K sat K dry
K fl
K dry
1
Km
1 K dry
2
Km
Km
(2)
K dry
K fl
K sat
K m K sat K m K dry ( K m K fl )
Biots Formulation
Biot defines (the Biot coefficient) and M (the fluid modulus) as:
K dry
1
1
, and
,
Km
M K fl
Km
Equation (1) then can be written as:
K sat K dry 2 M
K sat K dry
1
1
K sat K fl
Km
The bulk modulus of the solid rock matrix, Km is usually taken from
published data that involved measurements on drill core samples.
Typical values are:
Ksandstone = 40 GPa,
Klimestone = 60 GPa.
36
1
S
1 Sw
w
K fl K w
K hc
where K fl the bulk modulus of the fluid,
K w the bulk modulus of the water,
and
Equations for estimating the values of brine, gas, and oil bulk modulii are
given in Batzle and Wang, 1992, Seismic Properties of Pore Fluids,
Geophysics, 57, 1396-1408. Typical values are:
Estimating Kdry
The key step in FRM is calculating a value of Kdry. This can be done in
several ways:
(1) For known VS and VP, Kdry can be calculated by first calculating Ksat
and then using Mavkos equation (equation (2)), given earlier.
(2) For known VP, but unknown VS, Kdry can be estimated by:
can
Kdry.
(a) Assuming a known dry rock Poissons ratio dry. Equation (1)
then be rewritten as a quadratic equation in which we solve for
38
Data Examples
In the next few slides, we will look at the computed responses for
both a gas-saturated sand and an oil-saturated sand using the
Biot-Gassmann equation.
We will look at the effect of saturation on both velocity (VP and VS)
and Poissons Ratio.
Keep in mind that this model assumes that the gas is uniformly
distributed in the fluid. Patchy saturation provides a different
function. (See Mavko et al: The Rock Physics Handbook.)
39
wet = 0.33
gas = 0.12
41
42
43
Kuster-Toksz model
The Kuster-Toksz model allows to estimate
properties of the rocks with ellipsoidal pores, filled
up with
any kind of fluid.
b
a
Aspect Ratio = b/a
Courtesy of A. Cheng(2009)
Kuster-Toksz model
Pores in the rock according to Kuster-Toksz model.
Courtesy of A. Cheng(2009)
Kuster-Toksz model
= 1.0
0.95
0.9
0.1
0.85
0.05
WATER-SATURATED
0.01
GAS-SATURATED
P Wave
0.8
0
S Wave
5
0
1
POROSITY (%)
49
Patchy Saturation
When multiple pore fluids are present, Kfl is usually calculated by a Reuss
averaging technique (see Appendix 2):
1
S w So S g
K fl K w Ko K g
This method heavily biases compressibility of the combined fluid to
the most compressible phase.
This averaging
technique assumes
uniform fluid
distribution!
-Gas and liquid must
be evenly distributed
in every pore.
50
Patchy Saturation
When fluids are not uniformly mixed, effective modulus values cannot be
estimated from Reuss averaging. Uniform averaging of fluids does not
apply.
When patch sizes are large with respect to the seismic wavelength, Voigt
averaging (see Appendix 2) gives the best estimate of Kfl (Domenico, 1976):
K fl S w K w So Ko S g K g
When patch sizes are of intermediate size, Gassmann substitution should
be performed for each patch area and a volume average should be made.
This can be approximated by using a power-law averaging technique,
which we will not discuss here.
51
Patchy Saturation
Gassmann predicted velocities
Unconsolidated sand matrix
Porosity = 30%
100% Gas to 100% Brine saturation
52
VP 1.16 VS 1360 m / s
Note that for a constant Poissons ratio, the intercept is zero:
2 2
VP
VS
2 1
This will be illustrated in the next few slides.
53
4000
3000
Gas Sand
VP (m/s)
2000
1000
1000
VS(m/s)
2000
3000
4000
55
= 1/3
Mudrock Line
or
VP/VS = 2
4000
3000
Gas Sand
VP (m/s)
2000
1000
1000
VS(m/s)
2000
3000
4000
56
= 1/3 or
Mudrock Line
VP/VS = 2
4000
3000
Gas Sand
VP (m/s)
2000
= 0.1 or
VP/VS = 1.5
1000
1000
VS(m/s)
2000
3000
4000
57
VS 0.867 km / s 0.770 VP
58
n 2 (1 c ) 2 m2
2
2
18
(
1
)
m
1
3
1
3
4 4 m 3n 2 (1 c ) 2 m2
K eff
P , eff
P ,
2
2
5( 2 m ) 2 (1 m )
K dry
K eff
dry
/ c
1 / c
( 4 / 3) eff K m ( 4 / 3) eff
/ c
1 / c
z
eff
eff
z
6
4
eff
3
4
z, where :
3
9 K eff 8eff
K 2
eff
eff
62
Conclusions
An understanding of rock physics is crucial for the
interpretation of AVO anomalies.
The volume average equation can be used to model
density in a water sand, but this equation does not
match observations for velocities in a gas sand.
The Biot-Gassmann equations match observations well
for unconsolidated gas sands.
When dealing with more complex porous media with
patchy saturation, or fracture type porosity (e.g.
carbonates), the Biot-Gassmann equations do not hold,
and we move to the Kuster-Toksz approach.
The ARCO mudrock line is a good empirical tool for the
wet sands and shales.
63
,
F2
F3 F4
F2 F4
5
4
3
3
( g f ) R g f
2
3
2
2
where : F1 1 A
3
R
F2 1 A 1 ( g f ) (3g 5 f ) B(3 4 R )
2
2
A
( A 3B )(3 4 R ) g f R ( g f 2 f 2 ) ,
2
A
(1 2 )
F3 1 R( 2 f )
g ( R 1) ,
2
2
F4 1
A
3 f g R ( g f ,
4
64
F5 A R g f g Bf (3 4 R ),
3
F6 1 A1 g R g f B (1 f )(3 4 R ),
A
F7 2 9 f 3g R 5 f 3g Bf (3 4 R ),
4
g
f
F8 A 1 2 R ( R 1) 5R 3 B(1 f )(3 4 R ),
2
2
Kf
F9 A g ( R 1) Rf Bf (3 4 R ), A 1, B
,
3K m
R
3m
,
3K m 4 m
1
2 1/ 2
cos
(
1
)
2 3/ 2
(1 )
2
g
(3 f 2) and pore aspect ratio.
2
1
65