Stainless steels

Iron-Chromium, iron-chromium-Nickel
alloys but may contain other alloying
elements that alter microstructure and or
properties

Minimum level of chromium - 11%

Stainless steel discovered by Brarely/
Sheffield in 1913

Applications
Power Generation
Petrochemical Industries
Nuclear applications
Domestic applications
Pulp& paper industries
Textile industries
Dairy& food processing
industries

Applications
Chemical, power & Engg - 34 %
Food Industries
Transport

- 18 %
- 18 %

Consumer goods &

Domestic application

- 28 %

Properties
Good corrosion resistance
Good oxidation resistance
High Stress rupture properties
Erosion resistance
Good notch toughness properties Aust.ss Cryogenic service
resistance to brittle fracture

Product forms
Wrought Alloys, Pipes & tubes, Casting

Major Alloying
elements

Cr, Ni, C, Mn, Si, Cb, N,

Ti, Mo, Cu, S&P
Physical properties

Properties

MSS

FSS

ASS

Density g/cc

7.8

7.8

7.8

Melt pt. C

1480-1530

1480-1530

1480-1530

11.2-12.1

17.0-19.2

24.4-26.3

18.7-22.8

Thermal exapn. 11.6-12.1

Ther.Cond.

28.7

Classification
Austenitic stainless steels
Ferritic stainless steel
Martensitic stainless steels
Dupelx stainless steels

Classification

Ferritic

Martensitic

Austenitic

Duplex

Classification
AISI classification
Series
Cr,Ni,Mn
Cr,Ni
Cr

Alloy type
2XX
3XX
4XX

AISI classification
(Castings)
CX-XX HX-XX HK-XX
UNS classification
Wrought- S Cast- J

Maximum service temperature in air

for stainless steels
Grade
815

Maxm.Temp (C)

301

840

302,304

870

308

923

309

980

310,330

1030

316,317,321,347

870

201,202

Austenitic stainless steels

Grade C

Cr

Ni

Spl.addition

201

0.15

16-18

3.5-5.5

N 0.25, Mn 5.5-7.5

302B

0.15

17-19

8-10

Si 2-3

303Se

0.15

17-19

8-10

Se 0.15 - 0.20

304H

0.04-0.10 18-20

8-10.5

304L

0.03

18-20

8-12

304 LN

0.03

18-20

8-12

N 0.10 - 0.16

302 Cu

0.08

17-19

8-10

Cu 3-4

305

0.12

17-19

10.5-13

308

0.08

19-21

10-12

309

0.20

22-24

12-15

Austenitic stainless steels

Grade

309S

0.08

22-24

12-15

310

0.25

24-26

19-22

310 S

0.08

24-26

19-22

314

0.25

23-26

19-22

Si 1.5-3.0

316

0.08

16-18

10-14

Mo 2-3

316F

0.08

16-18

10-14

P 0.2,S 0.1

316H

0.04-0.10 16-18

10-14

Mo 2-3

316L

0.03

10-14

Mo2-3

316LN0.03

Cr

Ni

16-18
16-18

Spl.addition

10-14

N 0.1-0.16

Austenitic stainless steels

Grade

Cr

Ni

317

0.08

18--20

11-15

Mo 3-4

321

0.08

17-19

9-12

Ti - 5XC

347H

0.04-0.10 17-19

9-13

Nb 8xC - 1.0

330

0.08

34-37

348

0.04-0.10 17-19

0.17-20

Spl.addition

9-13

*Co 0.2, 10xC, 1.0 Nb,0.1 Ta

Typical mechanical properties of

Aust.St.steel
Grade

TS(Mpa) YS(Mpa) %E

304

515

205

40

309

515

205

40

Difficulties in welding Stainless steel

Hot cracking
Liquation cracking
Intergranular corrosion
Knife line attack
Stress corrosion cracking

Sigma embrittlement

HOT CRACKING
- Cracking occurs at high temperature close to
liqudus temp.
- Fully Austenitic weld metal are more susceptible
- Hot cracks may be macro cracks or micro cracks
Causes
- Segregation of impurities to the interdentritic regions
- Formation of low melting eutectic along the grain
boundary
- Shrinkage stresses

 S, P, Si, O, form liquid films along GB

Below the solidus temperature of the alloy, the metal
has not developed strength
The contraction stresses cause tearing along
grain boundaries

S+P (%)

0.12

Crack

0.08

No Crack
0.04

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4
1.6
Cr eq/ Ni eq

1.8

2.0

Role of Delta ferrite

- Cracking tendency decreases as the ferrite
increases
- Controlled level of ferrite (4-10 %) is
beneficial
- Ferrite has higher solubility for impurities
- Provides additional boundary area to act as
sink for impurities
- Ferrite strengthens grain boundary
- Lower thermal expansion coefficient

Delta ferrite
Ferrite level depends on impurity level and
service conditions
Ferrite reduces corrosion resistance
For urea service, nil or very low ferrite is
required
For equipments like transformer, generator and
non magnetic requirement, nil ferrite is required
High temperature service, sigma embrittlement
4-8% controlled ferrite level
For cryogenic service < 2% F

Schaeffler diagram
Ni equivalent= Ni+Mn/2+30C

35
30
10%F

Austenite

25
20
A+M

15

Aust.+Ferrite

10
Martensite

A+
M

M+F

+F

F+M

Ferrite

10

15

20

25

30

Cr equivalent=Cr+1.5Si+Mo+0.5Nb

35

Intergranular corrosion (IGC)

- During welding, HAZ experiences a wide temp.range.
Regions heated to 650 C. On slow cooling Chromium carbide
precipitation at grain boundary takes place (sensitization )

- Less than 650 C, time is short

- Chromium combines with C to form carbide ( Cr23 C6)
- Carbides are rich in chromium- approx. 2-4 times the
nominal level
- Cr depletion in adjacent regions of carbide
- Corrosion attack at boundaries
- Called as weld decay when attack occurs in HAZ of
weldment

IGC ...

Grain boundary

Chromium depletion zone

Chromium carbide

Nominal chromium

Intergranular corrosion (IGC)

- Aust.St.steel subjected to 480-815 C, susceptible to IGC
- Cr depletion when carbide forms width 1 Um
- strains at the carbide matrix interface
Chromium diffusion is slower as compared to C
- preferred sites for carbide formation
Delta ferrite - aust. Grain boundary
Aust. Grain boundary

To avoid IGC
Reduce carbon level ( 0.04 max)
Ti & Nb addition- approx. 6-8 X C
Ti,Nb has higher affinity towards C
TiC, NbC formed instead of Cr carbide
Solution anneal
Carbides dissolved in solution
Rapid cool to retain the condition
limitatation- Distortion
Difficult for large & fully processed component

To avoid IGC
Low carbon grades
strength is low
Nitrogen strengthened aust st.steel
C- 0.03, N-0.06-0.10
304 NG & 316 NG ( Nuclear grade)
BWR application - 280 C
Radiation cause Cr depletion and enrichment Ni level
called Irradiation assisted SCC

Knife line corrosion

Occurs in stabilised grades of Aust.st.steel
when the HAZ experiences temp. 1300 C
TiC, NbC are redissolved in solution
On Rapid cooling no stablised carbides are
formed
During annealing @ 500 - 650 C, Cr carbides
are formed.
Corrosion in narrow regions where NbC
dissolved.
Stablise Annaling can be done - 845-900 C/5h

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

Failure of metal due to the combined effects of corrosion
and stress
Causes
Corrosive environment
Stress - Applied, residual or both
Mechanism
Destruction of passive film at localised region
Micro anode formation
Stress concentration at these points
Formation of primary cracks
Crack propagation - Corrosion and stress interaction

Factors influencing SCC

Stress

- Applied, residual
- Minimum stress for propagation
- Compressive stresses do not cause

SCC
Corrosive medium - Chlorides
- Caustic solution
- Hydrogen sulphide
Temperature
- Susceptibility increases with
increase in temperature
Chemical composition- Nickel alloyed reduces SCC
( 35-40 % Ni fully prevents SCC)

Factors influencing SCC

- Si & Mo increases Resistance to SCC
- Grain boundary carbides- Increases SCC
To prevent SCC
- Avoid crevices
- Reduce residual stress - PWHT reqd.
- Compressive stresses can be induced by
Peening
- When conditions cannot be changed, material has
to be changed

- Pure metals generally immune to SCC

Alloying a metal with more noble metal to form
a homogeneous solid solution susceptible to
SCC
Characteristics of SCC
Brittle fracture
Transcrystalline or inter crystalline
Discontinuous process

Welding of Aust. stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels weldability is good
Except oxy acetelyne, all welding process can be
adopted
Generally matching weld consumables are available
Filler metal selection & procedure depends on
Whether ferrite is acceptable in weld
If ferrite is acceptable, range of filler and procedure
are wide
If ferrite is not acceptable to weld, then the procedure
is restricted

Welding of Aust stainless steels

SMAW electrodes ferrite level - 0 - 20 FN
Solid rods

- 3 - 8 FN

Exxx-15 electrodes better resistant to hot cracking

Convex beads are better than concave
Exxx15 provides convex while Exxx-16 that of nearly
flat profile
Fully austenitic st.steel welding
Impurities ; S,P shall be low
Avoid high heat input

Welding of Aust stainless steels

Use lower dia electrode
use lower range of current
Avoid narrow deep weld puddle
Avoid weld pool with sharp tail
Low heat input
Short arc to be maintained during welding to avoid N
pick up
No preheat /Post heat required
Inter-pass temperature maximum 150 C
cleaning tools such as wire brushes and chipping
hammers shall be of stainless steels.

Filler metal for Austenitic stainless steels

Material

SMAW

201,202,205

GTAW, GMAW

E240

301,302,304,305,308

ER240

E308

ER 304L

304L,CF3

E308L

ER 308L

304H

E308H

ER308H

309,309S,309H,CH20 E309
309Cb, 309H Cb

E309Cb

310,310S,310H,CK20 E310
310Cb
316,CF 8M

ER309
ER 310

E310 Cb
E316

ER 316

Filler metal for Austenitic stainless steels

Material
316L,CF3M
316H
317,CG8M

SMAW
E316L
E316H
E317

321,321H,347,347H,348
320, CM 7M
330

E320
E330

GTAW, GMAW
ER 316L
ER 316H
ER 317
E347

ER347

ER320
ER330

CF8,CF20

E308

ER308

CG12,CH20

E309

ER 309

CF8C

E347

CN3M

E385

ER 321

Chemical composition of Aust.Filler metal

Grade

Cr

Ni Spl.

E209

0.06

20-24

9-12

E219

0.06

19-21

5-7 8-10Mn

E240

0.06

17-19

4-6 10-13Mn

E307

0.04-0.14

18-21

9-10

E308

0.08

18-21

9-11

E308H

0.04-0.08

18-21

9-11

E308L

0.04

18-21

9-11

E308Mo

0.08

18-21

9-12

2-3 Mo

E347

0.08

18-21

9-11

8C-1 Cb

E309

0.15

22-25

12-14

E309Cb

0.12

22-25

12-14

E310

0.08-0.20

25-28

20-22

4-7Mn, 1.5-3.0 Mo

0.5-1.5Mo, 3- 4.7Mn

0.7-1.0Cb

Chemical composition of aust.Filler metal

Grade

Cr

Ni Spl.

E310Cb

0.12

25-28

20-22

E310H

0.35-0.45

25-28

20-22

E312

0.15

28-32

8-10

E316

0.08

17-20

11-14

2-3 Mo

E318

0.08

17-20

11-14

6XC- Cb -1.0

E317

0.08

18-21

12-14

3-4 Mo

E320

0.07

19-21

32-36

8XC- 1Cb, 3-4 Cu

E320LR

0.03

19-21

32-36

E330

0.18-0.25

14-17

33-37

E349

0.13

18-21

8-10

0.35-0.65Mo, 0.75Cb

E383

0.03

26-29

30-33

3-4 Mo, 0.6-1.5Cu

E385

0.03

19-21

24-26

4-5 Mo, 1-2 Cu

0.7-1

Postweld heat treatment

- Selection

of Stress relief heat

treatment depends on
- Design and operating condition
- Specific materials used
- Fabrication procedures involved

Postweld heat treatment

Application

Low C grade

Severe SCC

Stabilised

Unstabilised

A,B

Moderate SCC
Mild SCC

B,A
A,B,C

B,A,C

A,B,C,E,F B,A,C ,E,F

No SCC
IGC

Thermal treatment

CC,F

----------not reqd ----A,C

Severe Forming

A,C,B
A,C

C
A,C

A- Anneal 1060-1120C, slow cool E- SR 480-650C,slow cool

B- SR 900C, slow cool

F- SR <480C, slow cool

C- Anneal 1065-1120, quenching

D- SR 900C, quenching

Ferritic stainless steels

Essentially iron chromium alloys
Ni is usually less than 1%
Ti, Al,Cb & Se added for spl properties
Service upto 250 C
BCC structure
Moderate corrosion resistance
Low ductility& toughness
Resistance to SCC good than AUST.SS
Can not be hardened by HT
Useful In automotive exhaust system

Chemical compositions of typical ferritic stainless steels

Grade

C Mn

Si Ni Cr

Others

405

0.08

1.00

1.00

11.5-14.5 0.10-0.30 Al

409

0.08

1.00

1.00

10.5-11.75 Ti; 6XC min

430

0.12

1.00

1.00

16.0-18.0 -

430Ti

0.10

1.00

1.00

0.75

16.0-19.5 Ti; 5XC-0.75

430

0.10

1.00

1.00

0.75

16.0-19.5 Ti; 5XC-0.75

434
436

0.121.001.00-

16.0-19.5

0.75-1.25 Mo

0.121.001.00-

16.0-19.5

0.75-1.25 Mo

Nb 5 X C

Chemical compositions of typical ferritic stainless steels

Grade C Mn

Si Ni Cr

Others

442

0.20

1.00

1.00

16.0-23.0 Ti 0.20+4(C+N)

446

0.20

1.50

1.00

23.0-27.0 Ti 0.25

26-1

0.006 0.75

0.75 0.50 25.0-27.0 0.75-1.50 Mo. 0.20

-1.0Ti 0.04 N,0.2 Cu

29-4-2 0.010 0.20

0.30

2.0-2.5 28.0-30.0 3.5-4.2Mo,0.15 Cu

CB 30 0.30

1.50

1.00

2.0 18.0-21.0 Casting

CC50 0.50

1.50-1.00 4.0 26.0-30.0 Casting

Grain coarsening

Martensite

Reduce

Ductility

Toughness
Reduce

PWHT
Low interstials

Improve

Weldability

Ultra high purity

(C+N)< 150 ppm

Low interstials

Intermediate
purity
150-800 ppm

475 Embrittlement
- - Aging of Fe-Cr alloys at 400 -550 C for extended
periods
causes formation of Cr rich precipitates - Hard brittle inter metallic compound
- Hardness and strength increases
- Drastic reduction in ductility and toughness
- Impact transition temperature is increased
- Alloying elements Cr,Mo, increases embrittlement
- Co, Al& Ni reduces embrittlment
- Corrosion resistance decreased

475 Embrittlement
- Aging of Fe-Cr alloys at 400 -550 C for extended
periods causes formation of Cr rich precipitates
- Hard brittle inter metallic compound
- Hardness and strength increases
- Drastic reduction in ductility and toughness
- Impact transition temperature is increased
- Alloying elements Cr,Mo, increases embrittlement
- Co, Al& Ni reduces embrittlment

Welding of FSS
Matching consumable

E409Cb E430TI E430 Cb

Ductility & toughness low

PWHT required
PWHT- 700 - 850 C cool
rapidly thro 550-400C

Welding of FSS
GTAW
CURRENT
Type-DC
Polarity -Electrode negative
Electrode-Tungsten 2% Thoria
-Tapered tip
Gas shieldingAr ,He ,Ar+ He.
High purity gas
Trailing gas used for high speed
process

Welding of FSS
GTAW
Back gas shielding
High quality gas for full penetration
Nitrogen should not be used
Inert gas used atleast for two layers
Trailing gas shielding
used for high speed automatic process
Arc stability
reduced by oxidation of electrode tip

Welding of FSS
GTAW
Procedure to enhance weld quality

Group III Alloys

Thorough degreasing
use clean gloves
keep torch at right angles
weaving not permitted
prepurge the torch before welding
gradual increase and decrease of current while
initiating and extinguishing the arc

Welding of FSS
GMAW
CURRENT

Type-dc,Polarity-electrode Positive

Methods of metal transfer

Spray transfer-high heat input - excessive grain growth
Globular transfer-low heat input - minimized spatter
short circuit transfer-lowest heat input - lack of fusion
To control grain growth
use austenitic filler metal
High travel speed
lower interpass temperature
use heat sinks

Welding of FSS
GMAW
Shielding gas
Ar + 2% O2 or 2%CO2
pure Ar -results in arc instability
for group III alloys oxidising gases reduces toughness
and ductility
To solve Arc wandering problem
add oxidizing elements into the inert gas

Welding of FSS
FCAW
SHIELDING- either supplementary gas shielding or
self shielding consumable
Group III alloys-difficulty of maintaining alloy purity
weld deposits not clean
use when
application is less critical
filler used is austenitic
mode of operation -spray arc-high heat input
-problem of grain growth

Welding of FSS
SMAW
Current : type dc, polarity-electrode positive
Electrode:
choice of electrode-High Cr austenite grade to
high nickel alloy grade
Use dissimilar welding electrode when postweld
annealing is not practical
for group III alloys covered electrodes for matching
composition is not available.
Improper storage -pick up of moisture -weld porosity,HIC

Welding of FSS
SMAW
with matching filler - lower toughness
High nickel alloy weld metal - sluggish,shallow penetration
Heat input :
when ASS filler is used provide sufficient heat
to fuse FSS weld metal and to avoid lack of fusion .
General techniques
Weld joint surfaces to be cleaned using solvents
Arc should be struck in the bevel rather than on base metal
short arc shall be maintained . Excessive crater cracks
must be ground to sound weld metal

Welding of MSS

Chemical compositions of martensitic stainless steels

Grade C Mn

Si Cr

403

0.15

1.00

0.50

11.5-13.0

410

0.15

1.00

1.00

11.5-13.0

414

0.15

1.00

0.50

11.5-13.0 1.25-2.50

416

0.15

1.25

0.50

12.0-14.0

420

0.15 min 1.00

12.0-14.0

422

0.20-0.25 0.75

11.0-13.0

431

0.20

1.00

440A 0.60-0.75

1.00

Ni others

S-0.15 mi

15.0-17.0 1.25-2.50

15.0-17.0 1.25-2.50

440B 0.75-0.95 C 440 C : 0.95-1.20 C

0.75Mo

Chemical compositions of martensitic stainless

steels
Grade

C Cr

Ni

others

CA6NM 0.06

11.5-14.0 3.5-4.5

CA15

0.15

11.5-14.0 1.0

0.50 Mo

CA40

0.40

11.5-14.0 1.0

0.5 M0

Cr-(17XC) < 12.5 Mss

Cr-(17XC) > 12.5 FSS

0.40 -1.0 Mo

Welding of Martensitic stainless steels

MSS- highly sensitive to Hydrogen
induced cracking
Causes
High strength and inadequate
toughness, ductility
Hydrogen
Restraint

Welding of martensitic stainless steels

Use extra low hydrogen welding

Use low heat input
Maintain preheat , Post heat and
interpass temp. control

Post weld Heat treatment for Martensitic

stainless steels
Type

Subcritical PWHT

403,410,416 650-760 C

Full annealing *
C
830-885

414

650-730

Not recommended

420

680-760

830-885

431

620-700

Not recommended

440A,B,C 680-760

850-900

CA6NM 600-620

780-815

CA15,CA40 620-650

850-900

* Furnace cool up to 600 C and then air cool

Typical preheat and post weld heat treatment requirements of

martensitic stainless steelss
Carbon

Preheat (C) PWHT

<0.05

120

Optional

0.05-0.15 200

Recommended

>0.05

Necessary

315

Thank you

Duplex stainless steels

-Two phase alloys
- Approximately equal amounts of ferrite and austenite
- Carbon max 0.03
- Better weldability
- Higher strength compared to Aust.ss
- Better SCC resistance than Aust. SS
- Better ductility and toughness than FSS

Composition of Duplex stainless steels

Grade

Cr Ni N MoTs Ys E

2304

23 4 0.1 -

2205

22 5.5 0.15

3.0

2505

25 5 0.17

2.5

2507

25 7 0.25

3.5

450

Welding of DSS
- Performance significantly affected by welding
- No preheat required
- No PWHT required
- IF PWHT is required, then heating to 1050 C and
cooled rapidly.
- Interpass temp. 150 C for 2205 steel and 70 C for
2507 steel

L+A
L
1400

F
L+F
Temp C

1200

F
+
A

L+A+F

1000

800
10

15

Ni%

Sigma embrittlemnt

- Heating in 540-1000 C results in formation of

sigma
- Sigma is mainly Fe, Cr compound with other
elements like Mo
- sigma formation is sluggish
- Forms congruently from ferrite at 815 C
- Cold work accelerates Sigma

Influence of sigma
- Amount of sigma
- Distribution
- isolated colonies - little effect
- Continuous network - brittleness
- Delta ferrite promotes sigma
- Minor effect on tensile and hardness
- Notch sensitivity increased
- Impairs corrosion resistance in highly
oxidising Envt.

Precipitation hardening stainless steels

Properties
High strength better than Aust. St.steel
Corrosion resistance comparable to AISI 321, 347
corrosion resistance -

 Heating above 816C ferrite transforms to Austenite

martensite forms on cooling
High chromium FSS - does not transform to Martensite
Carbide precicptitation
Grain growth above 920 C
Transition temperature - above Room temp
Carry out PWHT to improve the toughness & ductility

Dissimilar Welding
Problems of dissimilar welding
Incompatibility of materials on either side
Optimization of Heat treatment
Selection of filler metal
Differences in thermal expansion coefficient

Austenitic stainless steels castings

Grade
CA15

wrought

410 M 0.15

CA40

420

CB30

431,442 F+C

Not reqd

0.40

Cr

Ni

11-14

1 0.5Mo

11-14

1 0.5 Mo

0.30

18-22

2 -

Effect of delta ferrite on tensile properties

Ferrite (%) TS *(MPa) *YS(MPa) %E *
3

465/339 216/104 60/45

64/63

10

498/350 234/109 61/43

73/69

20

584/457 296/183 53/36

58/47

41

634/488 331/188 45/33

47/49

* Room temp/355 C

%RA*