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Introduction to Compressors
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the
pressure of a air by reducing its volume. Compressors are
work absorbing devices which are used for increasing pressure
of fluid at the expense or work done on fluid.
The compressors used for compressing air are called air
compressors. Work required for increasing pressure of air is
available from the prime mover driving the compressor.
Generally, electric motor, internal combustion engine or steam
engine, turbine etc. are used as prime movers. Compressors
are similar to fans and blowers but differ in terms of pressure
ratios. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the
pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a
pipe.
Compressor
Compressed air is a air which is kept under a
certain pressure, usually greater than that of the
atmosphere.
Compressed air can be used in or for:
pneumatics, the use of pressurized air to do work.
Air dusters for cleaning electronic components
that cannot be cleaned with water.
railway braking systems
road vehicle braking systems.
Types of compressors
RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSOR
ROTARY COMPRESSOR
Velocity triangle
Performance coefficients
In order to evaluate the performance of the compressor same dimensionless
performance coefficients are found useful in various analyses.
1.Flow coefficient
it is defined as the ratio of axial velocity to peripheral speed of the
blades. Flow coefficients sometimes called as compressor velocity ratio.
2.Rotor pressure loss coefficient
it is defined as the ratio of the pressure loss in the rotor due to relative
motion of air to the pressure equivalent of relative inlet velocity.
3.Rotor enthalpy loss coefficients
it is defined as the ratio of the difference between the actual and isentropic
enthalpy to the enthalpy equivalent of the inlet relative velocity.
Degree of reaction
Flow losses
Aerodynamic losses occurring in the most of the turbo
machines arise due to the growth of boundary layer and its
separation on the blade and passage surface .
Types of aerodynamic losses
1.Profile loss 2.Tip clearance loss 3.Stage loss
Performance characteristics
The performance characteristics of
axial flow compressors or their
stages at various speeds can be
presented in terms of the plots of the
following parameters.
1.Presssure rise vs flow rate
2.Pressure ratio vs non-dimensional
flow rate
0ff-design operation
The performance of a compressor is defined according to its
design. But in actual practice, the operating point of the
compressor deviates from the design- point which is known as
off-design operation.
Unstable flow in axial compressors can be due to two reasons.
1.Seperation of flow from the blade surfaces called stalling.
2.Complete breakdown of steady through flow called surging.
Compressor surge
It is a form of unstable operation and should be avoided.
Surge has been traditionally defined as the lower limit of stable operation in a
compressor, and it involves the reversal of flow.
This reversal of flow occurs because of some kind of aerodynamic instability
within the system.
Usually, a part of the compressor is the cause of the aerodynamic instability,
although it is possible for the system arrangement to be capable of
augmenting this instability.
A decrease in the mass flow rate, an increase in the rotational speed of the
blade, or both can cause the compressor to surge.
One should note that operating at higher efficiency implies operation closer to
surge.
Surge is a reversal of flow and is a complete breakdown of the continuous
steady flow through the whole compressor. It results in mechanical damage to
the compressor due to the large fluctuations of flow which results in changes
in direction of the thrust forces on the rotor creating damage to the blades.
Compressor Stall
Rotating Stall
Rotating stall (propagating stall) consists of large stall zones covering
several blade passages and propagates in the direction of the rotation and at
some fraction of rotor speed. The number of stall zones and the
propagating rates vary considerably .
This stalled blade does not produce a sufficient pressure rise to maintain
the flow around it, and an effective flow blockage or a zone of reduced
flow develops.
Stall Flutter
This phenomenon is caused by self-excitation of the blade and is an aeroelastic phenomenon. Stall flutter is a phenomenon that occurs due to the
stalling of the flow around a blade.
Blade stall causes Karman vortices in the airfoil wake. Whenever the
frequency of these vortices coincides with the natural frequency of the
airfoil, flutter will occur. Stall flutter is a major cause of compressor blade
failure.
Effects of stall
This reduces efficiency of the
compressor
Forced vibrations in the blades due to
passage through stall compartment.
These forced vibrations may match
with the natural frequency of the
blades causing resonance and hence
failure of the blade.
Centrifugal compressors
1.It consists of a rotating element called impeller , diffuser and a
volute casing.
2.The air enters into the compressor through the suction eye of
the impeller. Due to the rotation of the impeller at a high speed
produces centripetal force which causes the air to move out of
the impeller at a high velocity.
3.Then the air with high velocity enters into a diffuser ring. The
diffuser blades of the diffuser ring are so shaped that these
provide an increased area of passage to the air which is passing
outwards due to which the velocity of air leaving the impeller is
reduced and its pressure is increased.
Types of diffuser
The diffuser consists of any annular space known as a vaneless
diffuser.
The diffuser consists of a set of guide vanes it is known as
vanned diffuser . The main aim of this diffuser is to increase
the static pressure by reducing the kinetic energy.
2
P
0
1
Inlet
Casing
Impeller
Channel
Diffuser
Since
the change in radius between the entry and exit of the
Slip factor
It is the ratio b/w actual and ideal
values of the whirl component at the
exit of the impeller.
= ct2
ct2
Slip velocity Cs = ct2 - ct2
if the value of slip factor is 1 then the
slip velocity is zero(no slip condition)
Performance parameters
Power input factor
In practice the actual energy transfer to the air from the
impeller is lower than the ideal energy transfer ,because some energy
is lost in friction b/w the casing and the air carried round by vanes
and in disc friction.in order to take this into account power input
factor is introduced, so the actual energy transfer becomes.
E =Pif u22
Pif value lies b/w 1.035-1.04
Total head temperature rise across the compressor or temperature rise
across the impeller
Tc = T02 - T01 = Pif u22
Cp
Pressure coefficient :
p = Wactual
Wisen
p = Cp T01(rc(-1/) -1)
Cp T01(rcm(-1/) -1)
p = Cp T01(rc(-1/) -1)
u22
Compressor efficiency :
It is the ratio b/w ideal
enthalpy difference to the actual
enthalpy difference.
c =
c =
(T02 T01 ) =
(T02 T01 )
p
Pif
Cp T01(rc(-1/) -1)
Cp (T02 T01 )
Combustion chambers
Combustion
The combustion process is of critical importance in a gas turbine cycle.
It is because in this process the chemical energy of the fuel is converted
to heat energy which later converted into work by the turbine.
Therefore losses incurred in the combustion process will have direct
effect on the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Process of establishing self sustained fire using fuel and oxidizer of
course in a controlled manner.it is basically a chemical process in which
is fuel is burnt in presence of oxidizer.
The overall chemical process must be exothermic in nature , which
liberates enough heat to sustain combustion process itself.
Commonly encountered combustion devices in our life are
candle flames , lightening of matchsticks , cigarette burning ,
wood burning , reciprocating engines, gas turbine engines ,rocket
motor.
Combustion
Combustion can be defined as a complex sequence of
chemical reactions b/w fuel and oxidizer accompanied by
liberation of heat and light.
It is very important that fuel and oxidizer in right proportion
within the flammable range must be mixed properly .
Besides this sufficient amount of ignition energy is required
to initiate the process of combustion.
Hence the combustion process can be conceived as a
triangle involving the fuel, oxidizer , ignition energy .
In order to study combustion phenomenon it is important
to considered several disciplines such as
thermodynamics , chemical kinetics, fluid mechanics
, heat and mass transfer and turbulence .
Cont.
The formation of carbon deposits must be
avoided . small particles carried into turbines
along with the high velocity gas stream can
erode the blades.
In aircraft gas turbines combustion must be
stable over a wide range of chamber pressure
because this parameter changes with altitude
and forward speed.
aircraft engine combustion chambers are
normally constructed of light gauge heat
resisting alloy sheet (approx. 0.8mm thick) but
are only expected to have a life of some 10000
hours.
Process of combustion
The process of combustion in a gas turbine
combustion involves the following
1. The mixing of a fine spray of fuel droplets
with air.
2. Vaporization of the droplets.
3. The breaking down of heavy hydrocarbons
into lighter fractions.
4. The intimate mixing of molecules of these
hydrocarbons with oxygen molecules.
5. The chemical reactions themselves.
Combustion intensity
Cont. .
The combustion intensities of some heat engine
combustion processes are compared:
Boiler furnaces-----4x105to106 kJ/m3.hr (1x102 to
103kWatts/m3)
Piston engine -----25125x105 to 106kJ/m3.hr (7 35 x
102 to 103kWatts/m3)
Jet engine-----75-150x105 to 106kJ/m3.hr (2142 x102
to 103kWatts/m3)
Rocket engine -----260 x105 to106kJ/m3.hr(72 x 102 to
103kWatts/m3)
Cont..
The condition at the burner inlet is determined by
the outlet operating conditions of the compressor.
This may keep varying with varying flight regimes.
On the other hand, the outlet condition is governed
by turbine design operating limits and is generally
required to be uniform and stable.
Hence, combustion chamber is expected to be a
stable source of hot gas.
That means even if its inlet conditions are variable
it is expected to deliver comparatively steady and
uniform flow to the turbine.
Types of combustion
chamber
Can type
Annular type
Can annular type
Can type
Cannular Type
Annular type
The flame moves in the direction of the air flow inside the
combustion chamber at a characteristic speed known as flame
speed. The flame is sustained in a flame zone at the end of
which most of fuel is burned. Outside the flame zone the
combusted gas moves towards the combustor exit.
The process of evaporation of droplets and mixing of fuel and
air can occur partly aided by local turbulent vortices artificially
created around the spray zone, and partly by diffusion of liquid
vapour into air.
At the point of ignition all the droplets may not have been
evaporated and mixed -hence some of them may burn as liquid
droplets in a surrounding air.
Flame
Front
Delivery of
Uniform gas
flow
Practical problems
1.Flame tube cooling 2.Fuel injection-meter the fuel flow ,
atomize the fuel.
3.Ignition4.Use of cheap fuels
5.Pollution-unburnt
hydrocarbons,CO,NOx, oxides of
sulphar