Measurements & Measurement

Systems

Methods of Measurement
Direct Method

Directly comparing against a standard

Indirect Method

Instruments
Physical means of determining quantities or variables
Provide information about the physical value of some variables

being measured
Elements of Instruments are

Detector
Intermediate Transfer Device
Indicator ,recorder or storage device

Three phases of instrument

Mechanical

Electrical

Slow and inaccurate

Slow

Electronic

Fast and accurate

Classification of Instruments
Absolute Instruments

Magnitude of the quantity of measurement in terms of physical

constants of the instrument

Tangent Galvanometer
Rayleigh Current Balance

Secondary Instruments

Quantity being measured can only be measured by observing

the output indicated by the instrument

Functions of Instruments
Indicating
Recording
Controlling

Elements of Generalized Measurement System

Primary Sensing element

Example
Primary sensing element

Presence of Magnetic field

Variable conversion element

Magnetic field to rotational

motion

Data Transmission element

Mechanical linkages

Variable Manipulation

element

Gearing

Data Presentation element

Pointer and Dial

Measurement System Performance

Static Characteristics

Accuracy
Sensitivity
Reproducibility
Drift
Static error
Dead zone

Dynamic Characteristics

Errors in Measurement
TRUE Value

Average of an infinite number of measured values when the

average deviation due to the contributing factor is zero
True value by Exemplar Method

Static Error

Agreement of the instrument reading with the true value

A = Am-At

A=error
Am is measured value of quantity
At is the true value

Static Error
Absolute static Error

0 = A
+/- 2A is negligible for 1000A but significant for 10A

Relative Static Error

Ratio of Absolute Static Error to True Value A/At
r = A/At= 0/At
At=Am/(1+ r)
Static Correction

C=At-Am=- A

Scale Range and Span

Scale Range

Difference between the largest and smallest reading of the

instrument
Xmax to Xmin

Span

Xmax-Xmin

Span and Range can be different

An Temperature Sensor with range 200C to 500C has a span of

300

Error Calibration Curve

Reproducibility
Degree of closeness with which a given value may be

repeatedly measured

DRIFT

Repeatability

Noise
A spurious current or voltage extraneous to the

current or voltage of interest in an electrical or

electronics circuit is called Noise
Signal to Noise Ration S/N

Signal power/Noise Power

Sources of Noise

Generated Noise
Conducted Noise
Radiated Noise

Accuracy
It is the closeness with which an instrument reading

approaches the true value of the quantity being

measured.
Point Accuracy
Accuracy as Percentage of Scale

Example

Thermometer with 500C range and +/- 0.5%

For 500C it is negligible (502.5 -497.5)
For 25C it is considerable (22.5-27.5) (err= 2.5/25 * 100)

Accuracy as Percentage of True Value

+/- of the True Value

Precision
Measure of the reproducibility of the measurements

Example: Accuracy
Who is more accurate when measuring a book that has a

true length of 17.0 cm?

A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
B:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

Example: Precision
Who is more precise when measuring the same 17.0 cm book?
A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
B:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

Significant Digits
The significant figures in a measurement include all

of the digits that are known, plus one last digit that is
estimated.
The numbers reported in a measurement are limited by the

measuring tool.

How many sig figs are there in a given measurement?

Measurement and Significant Figures

Every experimental

measurement has a
degree of uncertainty.
The volume, V, at right is
certain in the 10s place,
10mL<V<20mL
The 1s digit is also
certain, 17mL<V<18mL
A best guess is needed
for the tenths place

Uncertain Digit

Sensitivity
Ratio of the Magnitude of Output signal to Input

signal of the quantity being measured

Eg

Sensor gives output 1V for 1000units

For every change in unit we get 1 mV change

Linearity

Hystersis

Threshold

The minimum value for which the instrument does not change
the output.

Dead Time

The time required by a measurement system to begin to

respond to change in measurend

Resolution or Discrimation

The smallest change the instrument can detect

Loading Effects