Fossilization:

Five central issues

ZhaoHong Han
Teachers College, Columbia
University
Han@tc.columbia.edu
SLRF 2002, Toronto, Canada
1

The ultimate goal of second

language acquisition research is
to come to an understanding of
what is acquired
_ __________________
(and
what is not acquired)
and
the mechanisms that bring second
language knowledge about.

(Gass, 1988:198; emphasis a

2

1. Background
2. Definitions and putative causal variables
3. Conceptual issues
4. Major methodological approaches and
issues
5. Some concluding thoughts

Background

Chien-Shiung Wu
1990

1942

with her early

speaking
idiosyncratic
difficulties with
English
English still
English still
evident

One of the most enduring and fascinating

problems confronting researchers of
second language acquisition (SLA) is
whether adults can ever
acquire native-like
competence in a second
language (L2),

One of the most enduring and fascinating

problems confronting researchers of
second language acquisition (SLA) is
whether this is an
accomplishment
reserved for children
who start learning at a
relatively early age
(Kellerman,
1995: 219)

For most of us the acquisition of second

language is less spectacular. If we are
past the age of around 7-10 years the
acquisition of an L2, in marked contrast
to the way we acquired our first language
(L1), can turn out to be rather slow,
laborious and, even in talented L2
learners, tends to stop short of native-like
proficiency.
8

This "stopping short" has been

referred to as fossilization (Selinker,
1972) or incompleteness (Schachter,
1990). It is one of the noticeable
characteristics of second language
acquisition.
(Towell & Hawkins, 1994:2)
9

Definitions

10

(1972)
Selinker

Fossilization, a mechanism
underlies surface linguistic
material which speakers will tend
what
to keep in their no
IL matter
productive
the
age of the learner or the
performance,
amount of instruction he
receives in the TL.
(Selinker 1972:
229)

11

(1972)
Selinker
[F]ossilizable linguistic
phenomena are linguistic items,
rules, and sub-systems which
speakers of a particular L1 tend to
no matter
what
the ageto
ofathe
keep
in their
IL relative
learner
or TL,
amount of explanation
particular
and instruction he receives in the
TL....
(Selinker, 1972:
215)

12

(1978)
Selinker

a permanent cessation of IL
learning before the learner has
attained TL norms at all levels of
linguistic structurein
and
in all
spite
of
discourse
domains
the
learners
positive ability,
opportunity, and motivation to
learn and acculturate into
target society.
(Selinker & Lamendella,
1978: 187)
13

(1996)
Selinker
[F]ossilization
is is
the
process
whereby
[F]ossilization
the
process

the learner
creates
a cessation
whereby
the
learner
creates of
a
interlanguage
learning, thus stopping
cessation
of interlanguage
the interlanguage from developing, it
learning, thus stopping the
is hypothesized, in a permanent way .
interlanguage
from developing,
it
The argument
is that no
is
hypothesized,
inever
a permanent
adult
can hope to
speak a
way
. language in such a way
second
that s/he is indistinguishable
from native speakers of that
language.
(Selinker,
14

Lowther
Fossilization, as presented in much of
the literature, is understood to
be the
inabilit
of a person to attain nativelike
ability in the target language.y
(Lowther, 1983: 127;
emphasis added)

15

Ellis (1985: 48)

Fossilized structures can be realized as
errors or as correct target language forms.

16

Ellis (1985: 48)

Fossilized structures can be realized as
errors or as correct target language forms.

If, when fossilization occurs, the learner has

reached a stage of development in which
feature x in his interlanguage has assumed the
same form as in the target language, then
fossilization of the correct form will occur.
17

Ellis (1985: 48)

Fossilized structures can be realized as
errors or as correct target language forms.

If, however, the learner has reached a stage in

which feature y still does not have the same
form as the target language, the fossilization
will manifest itself as error.
18

Vigil & Oller (1976:282)

[W]e will extend the notion of fossilization
to any case where grammatical rules,
construed in the broadest sense, become
relatively permanently incorporated into a
psychologically real grammar.

19

Vigil & Oller (1976:282)

[A]n adequate explanation must account for
the incorporation of rules into developing
grammars in relatively permanent form
regardless of whether those rules conform
or do not conform to the norms of the
language which is being learned.

20

Vigil & Oller (1976:282)

It is not only the fossilization of so-called
'errors' that must be explained, but also the
fossilization of correct forms that conform
to the target language norms.

21

Hyltenstam (1988:68)
Fossilization -- according to observations -- is a
process that may occur in the second language
acquisition context as opposed to first language
acquisition.

22

Hyltenstam (1988:68)
It covers features of the second language learners
interlanguage that deviate from the native
speaker norm and are not developing any
further, or deviant features which - although
seemingly left behind -- re-emerge in the
learners speech under certain conditions.

23

Hyltenstam (1988:68)
Thus, the learner has stopped learning or has
reverted to earlier stages of acquisition.

24

Bley-Vroman (1989:47-49)
It has long been noted that foreign language
learners reach a certain stage of learning a stage short of success - and that learners
then permanently stabilize at this stage.

25

Bley-Vroman (1989:47-49)
Development ceases, and even serious
conscious efforts to change are often
fruitless. Brief changes are sometimes
observed, but they do not 'take'. The
learner backslides to the stable state.

26

Tarone (1994:1715)
A central characteristic of any
interlanguage is that it fossilizes -- that
is, it ceases to develop at some point
short of full identity with the target
language.

27

Han (1998:50)

COGNITIVE LEVEL:
Fossilization involves those cognitive processes,
or underlying mechanisms that produce
permanently stabilized IL forms.

EMPIRICAL LEVEL:
Fossilization involves those stabilized
interlanguage forms that remain in learner speech
or writing over time, no matter what the input or
what the learner does.
28

Putative causal
variables

29

Issue 1:
Global
o local
r fossilization?
30

Issue 2:
L2 ultimate attainment and
fossilization

31

General failure
Differential success/failure

32

Bley-Vroman (1989:8)
[T]hey achieve very
different degrees of
Few,
language
mastery.nativeit seems, achieve
like
proficiency.
Some
stop (or, to use
Selinkers 1972 term,
Others
fossilize)
at acome
very
between
thelevel.
two
elementary
extremes.
33

(2002:164
Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson
)
The ultimate attainment of individual
L2 learners varies enormously in its
approximation to nativelike
proficiency, although some
individuals may reach very high
levels of proficiency and in some
cases even pass as native speakers.

34

Three facets of L2 ultimate attainment

Cross-learner general failure (general)

Inter-learner differential success/failure
(general)
Intra-learner differential success/failure
(local)

35

Issue 3:
Fossilization
process
as productor

36

Issue 4:
Stabilizat or fossilizati
ion
on?

37

Major empirical
approaches

38

 longitudinal
typical-error
advanced-learner
corrective-feedback
length-of-residence
(LoR)
39

Issue 5:
years
or 1 years?
5
0
40

Larsen-Freeman (1997:159)
While interlanguages of speakers of various first
language learning English as a foreign language
have much in common, they also are
each
constrained by the strange attractors of
distinctive,
their L1s, which may be greater than the force
of the strange attractor of English. Thus, the
English pronunciation of a native speaker of
Spanish will differ from that of a native speaker
of Chinese.
41

Larsen-Freeman (1997:159)
Many other fundamental differences
differences mark
mark the
the
challenges present for learners
learners from
from one
one native
native
language background as for
for another.
another. Besides
Besides the
the
obvious linguistically-based differences
differences are
are the
the
learner's cultural backgrounds and
and reasons
reasons for
for
learning (not learning) aa second
second or
or foreign
foreign
language in the first place.

42

Some concluding
thoughts

43