Stage 2

Classical Studies
Literary Terms for Section A

The Epic Poem

The epic or heroic poem is a long narrative

poem on a serious subject, centred around the
actions of an heroic figure on whose actions
depend the fate of a nation or race.
The traditional epic poems were shaped from
the legends of the Greek heroic age, when the
Mykenaean Greeks or Akhaeans were on the
move and engaged in military conquest and
expansion during the Trojan War.

Characteristics of Epic Poetry

The hero is a figure of great national or

international importance.

The setting is large in scale, sometimes worldwide, or at least of the known world.

Characteristics of Epic Poetry

The actions involves heroic deeds in battle or a

long and arduous journey intrepidly
accomplished.
In these great actions, the immortals and other
supernatural beings themselves take an interest
and active part.
An epic poem is a ceremonial performance.

Characteristics of Epic Poetry

The poet begins by stating his theme, then invokes

the Muses to help him with his undertaking.
The narration usually begins in the middle point of
the action and at a crucial point; the events that
happened before the narrative opening are introduced
later on.
There are catalogues of some of the main characters,
introduced to the reader in formal detail.

Narrative Features of Epic Poems

Epic poems were initially performed as oral

traditions, by wandering professional bards,
and this has an impact upon the narrative of
the poem.

Narrative Features of Epic Poems

Digressions

Anecdotes

Myths and stories

Epithets

Repetitions

Recurrent lines and phrases

Recurrent Lines and Phrases

There is the repetition at length by a speaker

of another speakers, their own or the
narrators earlier words.
The repetition of epithets.
Similar phrases used to introduce and/or
conclude speeches.
Single lines or a group of lines which
describe everyday life (e.g. beginning a
meal) or events (e.g. Dawn).

Construction of Characters

Characterisation is the way that the characters

are constructed, which then develops their
specific characteristics or nature.

Six Main Ways of Constructing a

Character

The habitual behaviour of the character.

The physical description of the character.

The known judgements and reaction of

other characters to them.

Six Main Ways of Constructing a

Character

The character is shown in specific episodes.

The use of epithets or stock phrases to

describe the character.

Specific biographical details are provided

about the character.

Construction of the Epic Hero

The epic hero is

the central figure
of the epic poem,
whose actions
involve heroic
deeds in battle or
a long and
arduous journey.
They are favoured
or opposed by the
immortals.

Odysseus.

Agamemnon.

Akhilles.

Nestor.

Menelaus.

Aiax.

Construction of Relationships

Gender

Power

Politics

Family or oikos

Immortals and mortals

Mortality

The Plot

It is the story line of the epic poem.

The plot is the system of actions, which are

carried out by the characters.

Structure of an Epic Poem

The structure of an epic poem is the

organisation of the plot. It is the order in
which the episodes that make up the plot are
presented to the audience.

The main type of structure for an epic poem is

non-linear.

Flashbacks are used to facilitate a non-linear

structure.

Structure of an Epic Poem

Flashbacks are interpolated descriptions or

scenes representing events that happened
before the point at which the plot opens.

Structure of an Epic Poem

The narrator of the poem changes on

occasions. Homer uses himself, other epic
heroes, other bards and even Odysseus as the
narrator on occasions.

Structure of an Epic Poem

Despite the complex structure of The Odyssey,

there is a unity of action within the poem.

How does Homer achieve this?

The Physical Setting

The physical setting is the locale in which the

action takes place.
Most of the physical setting of The Odyssey is
in Ithaka, but it also includes the sea, the
Underworld and various other lands during
Odysseus adventures.
Troy is also part of the physical setting when
stories of Odysseus warrior qualities are
referred to by other characters.

The Physical Setting

The physical setting is created by:

Imagery

Descriptive words and phrases

Similes

Metaphors

The Physical Setting

The action of the poem occurring in a

particular physical setting can have impact on
characterisation.

Odysseus characterisation in the sea and in

the Underworld.

The Social Setting

The social setting is the period in which the

action takes place.

In The Odyssey, the social setting is the Heroic

Age which is a conglomeration of the societies
of the Mykenaean and Dark Ages.

The Social Setting

The social setting can be the macro setting of

Heroic society
or

the social setting can be the micro setting of

particular societies, such as the values,
customs and norms of the Phaeakia or Ithaka
or the land of the Kyklopes or the Lotus eaters.

Stylistic Features of Epic Poems

Imagery

Symbolism

Descriptive words and

Suspense

phrases

Climax

Similes

Pathos

Metaphors

Contrast

Irony

Epithets

Imagery

Imagery is used to signify descriptive passages

that create mental pictures for the audience.

It can be used to describe a setting, a character

or an action.

Imagery is often created by figurative

language, especially similes and metaphors.

Descriptive Words and Phrases

Descriptive words and phrases are often used

to create imagery or enhance characterisation
through their impact and association in the
mind of the audience.

Similes

In a simile a comparison between two

essentially different items is expressly
indicated by a term such as like or as.

Metaphors

In a metaphor, a word which in ordinary use

signifies one kind of thing, quality or action is
applied to another, without express indication
of a relation between them.

Irony

Irony is a mode of speech in which the implied

attitudes or evaluation are opposed to those literally
expressed.

Praise or approval that implies dispraise or

disapproval is more frequent than the converse form.

Often the audience is aware of the irony of a situation

while the characters are not.

Epithets

Epithets or stock phrases are a device of oral

traditions, designed to give the bard a staged
pause to assist in composition and to assist
with the poetic metre.
Those associated with characterisation help to
develop that character by reinforcing particular
aspects of their character.
The adjectives also add colour to their
character.
The epithets used in conjunction with common
nouns are included more for the requirements
of metre.

Symbolism

Symbolism is applied to a word or a phrase

signifying an object which itself has
significance, that is, the object referred to has
meaning beyond itself.
The olive tree is a symbol of rebirth
throughout The Odyssey.
Throughout The Odyssey the physical and
social problems in Ithaka are symbolic of the
absence of Odysseus from his homeland.

Suspense

Suspense is an anxious uncertainty about what

is going to happen, especially to those
characters with whom the audience has
established bonds of sympathy.

Climax

Climax is the highest point of the action.

Pathos

Pathos is attributed to a scene or passage

designed to evoke tenderness, pity, sympathy
or sorrow from the audience.

Contrast

Contrast allows the poet to highlight features

of one setting or character with those of
another.

This is used to enhance both imagery and

characterisation.

Themes

Themes are the abstract concepts which are

embodied in the plot and the structure of the
epic poem.

Themes should raise issues with a

contemporary audience.

Themes

Love

Death

Loyalty

Endurance

Gender

Cunning

Sexual Desire

Power

Honour

Friendship

Heroism

Hospitality

Themes

Order

Adolescence

Family

Temptation

Servitude

Respect

Patriarchy

Human nature

Violence

Returning veterans

Suffering

Multiple Readings

The way that different societies interpret the

issues of the themes are referred to as multiple
readings.

Multiple Readings

Multiple readings often questions gaps and

silences in texts.

This can be read as:

Whose voice or viewpoint is not addressed?
or
Who is not given equal value in the power
structures of this society?

Example: Athene

Athene, although a goddess, has many

masculine symbols associated with her (shield,
helmet and aegis).
A multiple reading of The Odyssey may
explore why in Greek society, to be accepted
as powerful enough to move and advise within
male society, a goddess must be invested with
masculine symbols to legitimise this role.

Multiple Readings
The reading would then examine other female
characters who lack these masculine symbols,
explore the characteristics of these females, and
examine why these females instead are
constructed either as passive (Penelope or
Naussika) or dangerous (Kalypso, Klytemnestra
or Helen).

Multiple Readings
A character like Kirke sits in the middle: she is a
female with a phallic symbol, thus her
intermediary status constructs her as able to
facilitate passages between the male and female
world, as well as between the Underworld and
the physical real world.

Multiple Readings
Ultimately then, by examining the construction
of these female characters, we can formulate
theories about power and patriarchal structures
in Greek society.

Multiple Readings
Homer may not necessarily have overtly
recognised these, but in constructing his
characters like this, he has allowed us symbolic
access to deconstruct them in our framework.