CHAPTER 2

ELECTRICITY

2.1: Electric Field & Charge Flow

2.1.1:Electric Charge, Q
1. There are two types of charge. They are:
a) Positive charge (+)
b) Negative charge ()
2. The electron has a negative charge. The

charge of electron is 1.6 x 10-19 C.

3. The proton has a positive change. The

charge of proton is 1.6 x 10-19 C.

4. The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C)

5. A body is:
a) Neutral, if it has equal numbers positive and
negative charges.
b) Charged negative, if it has more negative
than positive charges.
c) Charged positive, if has more positive than
negative charges.
6. Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
F

Positive &
positive charges
repel each other

F F

Positive &
negative charges
attract each other
3

Static Electricity
1. Electric charge which do not move are

called static
charges.
2. Static

electricity

or

electrostatic

electricity can be produced

rubbing two materials together.

by

a) Electron are pulled from the woollen cloth to

the polythene rod.

b) Hence, the polythene rod gain electrons

and becomes negatively charge, while the

woolen cloth loses electrons and become
positively charged.

2.1.2:Electric Current
1. Electric current, I, is define as the rate of

flow of charge.

Q
I
, Q charge that flows(C), t time taken (s)
t
2. The SI unit of current is the Ampere (A).

1 A is a steady current that flows through a

wire when a charge of 1 coulomb flows
through the wire in 1 second.
Hence, 1 A = 1 C s-1
6

3. The amount

of charge, Q, flowing through

any conductor is given by:

Q It
where I = electric current, t = time taken
4. It is given that:

Q ne

where n is the number of electron and e is

the charge of electron equal to 1.6 x 107 19

4. When free electrons move through the wire

from B to A, the electric current, I, flows

from A to B.

Example 2.1.2
1.

A fuse wire will blow if the current flowing

through it exceeds 5 A for a time 80 ms.
a) What is the quantity of electric charge that
has passed through the fuse wire in 80 ms?
b) How many electrons have passed through
the fuse wire in that time, given that the
charge on 1 electron is 1.6 x 1019 C?

2. Find the number of electrons accumulated at the

dome of a Van de Graaff generator when a current

of 20 mA flows through a galvanometer in 3 s.
[e 1.6 10 19 C]
9

Exercise 2.1.2
1. A charged plate is connected by a wire so as

to discharge the plate. Find the time taken to

reduce the charge on the plate by 1.5 x 106
C, given that the average current flow during
the discharge is 2.0 x 105 A.
2. The current flow in a light bulb is 0.5 A.
a) Calculate the amount of electric charge

that flows through the bulb in 2 hours.

b) If one electron carries a charge of 1.6 x 10
19
C, find the number of electrons
transferred through the bulb in 2 hours. 10

2.1.3:Electric Field
1. An electric field is a region surrounding a

charged body where electrostatic force can

be experienced.
2. An electric field can be represented by field

lines drawn in certain pattern. The direction

of the field is indicated by arrows on the
lines.
+

The electric field around a

positive charge

The electric field around a

negative charge
11

3. The field lines of a small positive charge

point radially outwards.

4. The field lines of a small negative charge

point radially inwards.

5. Electric field patterns around some simple

arrangement of charges are as follows:

a)Two
positive
charges
+

12

b)One positive &

one negative
charge

c)A positive
charge close
to a negative
plate

d)Two
charged
parallel
plate

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

13

.1.4: The Effect of an Electric Field

A. A ping-pong Ball Coated with a Conducting Material

1. Figure shows a ping-pong ball coated with a

conducting material (such as silver paint)

suspended by an insulating thread between
two vertical plate

14

2. When a high voltage is applied across the

two plate, the is observed to be stationary.

This is because the opposite charges are

induced on the surface of the ball, so that
the ball is attracted by the positive and
negative plates with equal force, F.

15

3. If the ping-pong ball is slightly displaced to

one side, the ball will bounce back and forth

between the two plates continuously
4. Explanation
a) When the conducting ball touches the

negative plate P, electron are transferred

to the ball the force of repulsion between
like charges pushes the ball away from P
towards plate Q.

16

4. Explanation
b) When the conducting ball touches plate

Q, electrons flow from to positive plate Q.

the ball becomes positively charges and
is repelled from plate Q. Oscillation of the
ball continues.

17

B. A spreading of a candle flame

1. When the high d.c. voltage connected to

plates P and Q is switched on, it is observed

that:
a) The candle flame spreads out into two
opposite directions.
b) The spread of the flame towards negative
18

2. Explanation
a) Heat

energy from the candle flame

produces ionization of the air molecules.
Positive and negative ions are formed
around the flame

b) Positive

ions are heavier and move

slower. Movement of the positive ions
towards the negative plate P causes a
bigger spread of the flame.

c) Electrons are lighter and move at higher

speed. When they move towards the

positive plate Q, they cause a smaller
spread of the flame.
19

Exercise/Homework
1. a polystyrene ball coated with conducting

paint is hung with an insulating thread. It is

been charged with positive charges. A metal
plate P mounted on an insulating stand and
connected to the earth terminal is brought
near to the polystyrene ball moves to the
direction shown in figure 2.14.
a) Mark on the diagram the charges on the
metal plate P.
b) Explain why the sphere is deflected as
shown.
20

Metal plate P

Figure 2.14

21

2.2: Relationship between Electric

Current and Potential Difference

2.2.1: Potential Difference

1. The

potential difference (or voltage)

between two points in a circuit causes an
electric charge to move between the two
points.

2. Electron will move from a point of low potential to

a point of high potential.

22

Metal wire
e

I
High potential (+)

Low ()

3. The potential difference, V, between two

point is defined as the work done when

one coulomb of charge moves between
two points in the electric field.

work done, W
potential difference, V
Charge, Q
OR

Energy produced, E
V
Charge, Q
23

3. The

SI unit of potential difference (or

voltage) is the volt (V)
1 volt is the potential difference between
the point if 1 J of energy is produced when 1
C of charge flows between the two point

24

Example 2.2.1

20 C

bulb
B

1. The energy released between point A and B

shown in figure is 60 J when a charge of 20 C

flows from A to B.
a) What is the potential difference between A
and B
b) If the time taken for 20 C to flow between
A and B is 40 s, what is the value current
flowing through start.
25

Exercise 2.2.1

1. When a charged metal dome a Van de Graaff

generator is discharged through a resistive

wire, it is found that 2 C of charge passed
through it and 12000 J energy has dissipated.
What is the potential difference across the
wire?
2. In a closed circuit, a 6 V battery is used to

drive 40 C of electric charge through a light

bulb. How much work is done to drive the
electric charge through the bulb?
26

2.2.2: Ohms Law

1. Ohms law states that the current flowing

the trough a metal conductor is

directly
proportional
to
potential
difference across the conductor, if the
temperature and other physical conditions
remain
constant
V
I
V I

I V

V
27

1. Resistant, R.

The resistant of a conductor is defined as

the ratio of the potential difference across
the conductor to the current flowing through
it.

V
R ( Unit Ohm or )
I

2. 1 is the resistance of a conductor when a

potential difference of 1 volt applied across

it produces a current 1 A through it
28

Example 2.2.2

1. A 9 V battery connected across a resistance wire

produces a steady current of 0.3 A through the wire.
What is the resistance of the wire?
Exercise 2.2.2

1. When a potential difference of 12 V is applied across a

conductor, it is found that the current passing through
the conductor is 0.2 A. What is the resistance of the
conductor?
2. What is the potential difference across a light bulb of
resistance 5 when the current that passes through it
29
is 0.5 A

2.3: Factor that Affect Resistance

1.

Factor that affect

conductor are:
a)
b)
c)
d)

2.

The
The
The
The

the

resistance

of

type of material
length
cross sectional area
temperature

At constant temperature,
l
Resistance, R
A
Where l = length, A = cross sectional area
30

Example 2.2.3
1. A resistance wire of resistance 3 has length 0.2 m and

cross sectional area 0.02 mm2. What is the resistance of

another wire of the same material, but with length 0.80 m and
cross sectional area 0.04 mm2?
0.2 m
A = 0.02 mm2
3
0.8 m
A = 0.04 mm2
31

Exercise 2.2.3
1. A resistance wire of resistance 3 has length 0.1 m and

cross sectional area 0.05 mm2. What is the cross sectional

area of another wire of the same material, but with length 0.6
m and resistance 5 ?
0.1 m
A = 0.05 mm2
3
0.6 m

32

2.2.4: Superconductors
1.

2.

The resistance of a metal increases with

temperature.
The
resistance
of
a
semiconductor
decreases with temperature as shown in
figure below.

Resistance

Resistance

metals

semiconductors

Temperature

Temperature
33

3.

A superconductor is a material whose

resistance
becomes
zero
when
its
temperature drops to a certain value called
the critical temperature, Tc.
Resistance

superconductors

Tc

Temperature/K
34

3.

Examples of metals and alloys that behave

as superconductors are as follows:
Materials

Critical
Temperature, Tc (K)

Zinc
Aluminium
Mercury
Lead
YBa2Cu3O7

0.88
1.19
4.15
7.18
90

Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O

125
35

5.

The advantages of super conductors

a) At the critical temperature, a very large
current
can
flow
through
the
superconductor without overheating, as
its resistance is zero
b)

The magnetic field produced by a

superconductor is many times more
powerful
than
produced
by
any
permanent magnet.

36

6.

Uses of superconductors
a) Scanning device in hospitals such as CTscan and MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging).
b)

MAGLEV (magnetic levitation) train. The

strong magnetic repulsion helps train to
float about 1 cm from track. The train
speed can reach 500 km/hr.

c)

Electrical circuit of supercomputers which

can process information at high speed.

d)

Making of high efficiency microwave

antennas, generators and electric motor
37

2.3: Series and Parallel Circuits

6V

Parallel circuit

Series circuit

38

3.1: Resistors in a Series Circuit

1.

In a series circuit, two or more resistor are

arranged in one line.
I

R1
V1

R2

R3

V2

V3

39

2.

In a series circuit,
a) The current, I, passing through each
resistor is the same.
b) The potential difference, V, across each
other resistor is directly proportional to
the value of resistance, R.
V1 R1 , V2 R2 , V3 R3

40

3.

If V = total voltage across all resistors, then

V V1 V2 V3
V IR1 IR2 IR3

V I R1 R2 R3
V
R1 R2 R3
I
V
Since
R,
I
Hence, R R1 R2 R3
41

Example 2.3.1
1. Three resistors with resistances of 6 , 8 and R

respectively are arrange in series with battery of 6 V. The

reading on the voltmeter connected across the 6 resistor is
1.5 V.
6
8
R
1.5 V

6V

Determine
(a) The reading on ammeter
(b) The value of R
(c) The reading on voltmeter if its connected across the 8
resistor

42

Exercise 2.3.1
1. Three resistors with resistances of 6 , 9 and R

respectively are arrange in series with battery of 12 V. The

reading on the voltmeter connected across the 6 resistor is
4.5 V.
6

4.5 V

Determine
(a) The reading on ammeter
(b) The value of R

12V

43

3.2: Resistors in a Parallel Circuit

1.

In a parallel circuit, resistors are arranged in

two or more rows.
I1
I

I2
I3

R1
R2

R3

44

2. In a parallel circuit,
a) The potential difference, V, across each

resistor is the same

b) The current, I, passing through each
resistor is inversely proportional to the
value of
1 resistance, R
i.e. I

45

c) The total current supplied by battery,

I I1 I 2 I 3
V V V
I

R1 R2 R3
1
1
1
I V

R1 R2 R3
I
1
1
1

V R1 R2 R3
I 1
Since
,
V R
Hence,

1 1
1
1

R R1 R2 R3

, R = effective resistance
46

Example 2.3.2
6V

I
A

I1

I2

1. Three resistors with resistances of 2 , 3 and 4

respectively are arrange in series with battery of 6 V as

shown in above.
a) What is the effective resistance in the circuit?
b) What is the reading of ammeter?
c) Find the values of I1 and I2.
47

Exercise 2.3.2
9V

I
A

I1

I2

1. Three resistors with resistances of 1 , 2 and 4

respectively are arrange in series with battery of 9 V as

shown in above.
a) What is the effective resistance in the circuit?
b) What is the reading of ammeter?
c) Find the values of I1 and I2.
48

2.4: Electromotive Force (e.m.f.) and

Internal Resistance

.4.1: Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)

1. A source electrical energy such as dry cell, a

solar cell and accumulator can provide

energy to electrical components connected
in circuit.
2. The electromotive force (e.m.f), E, of a dry

cell is a total electrical energy given to one

coulomb of charge flowing through the cell
49

3. If a dry cell has an e.m.f. = 1.5 V, the dry

cell will provide 1.5 J of electrical energy to

every 1 C of charge passing through the
cell.
This energy is transferred to all parts of the
circuit.
4. In order to measure the e.m.f., E, of a dry

cell, a voltmeter
is connected across the dry
dry cell
cell in open circuit
V
V
voltmeter

(a) Reading of
voltmeter = e.m.f., E

(b) Reading of the

voltmeter e.m.f., E

50

4.2: The e.m.f., E, and Potential Difference

V

e.m.f = E

1. In the circuit shown in figure, when the

switch is open.
a) No current, I, flows through the circuit
b) The voltmeter reading = e.m.f. = E
51

R
I

2. When the switch is closed

a) Current, I, flows through the circuit
b) The voltmeter reading = V, where V is

potential difference across the terminals of

the dry cell
c) The reading, V, is less than the e.m.f., E, due
the
potential
drop
across
internal
52

3. Internal resistance, r, of cell is due to the

resistance of the chemicals in the cell. It

causes:
a) Loss of heat energy in cell
b) Potential difference across the terminals
of the cell to be less the e.m.f., E.

53

r
I

4. For the circuit shown above,

E V Ir

where E = e.m.f, V = potential difference =

IR
I = electric current, r = internal resistance
E V = potential drop

54

Example 2.4.2
V

r
E
bulb M

switch

1. A bulb M is connected to a battery by means of a switch. A

voltmeter is also connected across the battery as shown in

figure. When the switch is open, the voltmeter reads 6.0 V.
when the switch is closed, the voltmeter reads 4.8 V.
a) What is the e.m.f. of the battery
b) If the resistance of the bulb M is 8 , what is the current
passing through M when the switch is closed?
c) Find the value of the internal resistance, r, of the battery
55

Exercise 2.4.2
E
I

10

1. Figure shows a 10 resistor connected in series to a cell. The

voltmeter gives a reading of 2.5 V across the 10 resistor.

a) What is the value of I?
b) Find the e.m.f., E, of the cell if the internal resistance, r, is
2 .

56

Example 2.4.2
V

V/V

12
8

A
4
(b)

rheostat

I/A

switch
(a)

2. Figure (a) shows a circuit used to measure the potential

difference, V, across a battery and the current, I, passing

through it. Graph in figure (b) shows how the potential
difference (p.d.), V, varies with current, I, in that circuit.
Based on the graph shown, determine,
a) the emf of the battery
b) the internal resistance of the battery
57

Exercise 2.4.2
2. The figure shows the result of an experiment to determine the

e.m.f. and internal resistance of the cell.

V/V
3
1.7

0.74

I/A

From the graph, determine the e.m.f. of the cell and its internal
resistance.

58

2.5: Electrical Energy and Power

2.5.1: Electrical Energy

1. Electrical

energy is the total energy

supplied by the source to all electrical
components connected in the whole circuit
when the current flows in the circuit.

2. The

supplied electrical energy usually

converted in various forms such as heat,
light, kinetic and sound energy.
59

Heat
I

B
V

3. Electrical energy is supplied when a charge

of Q coulombs flows across a potential

difference of V between A and B is:

Energy charge (potential difference)

E QV , where Q It

60

Hence, Energy, E VIt

I Rt
2

t
R

where,
V potential difference (V)

I current (A)
R resistance ()
t time taken (s)

3. The unit of electric energy is joule (J)

4. 1

J is the electrical energy produced

between two point of potential difference 1
V when a steady current of 1 A flows
through them for 1 second.
61

Example 2.5.1

12 V

A
12 V, 0.5 A

12 V, 0.5 A
Switch K

1. Two identical bulbs M and N are connected in series to a 12 V

battery as shown in figure.

a) When a switch K is open, the ammeter reading is 0.25 A.
i. What is the resistance of each the bulbs M and N
ii. What is the energy produced by bulb M in 5 minutes
b) Switch K is then switched on, find
i. The reading on the ammeter
ii. The energy produced by bulb M in 5 minutes
62

Exercise 2.5.1

12 V

A
12 V, 0.9 A

12 V, 0.9 A
Switch L

1. Two identical bulbs M and N are connected in series to a 12 V

battery as shown in figure.

a) When a switch L is open, the ammeter reading is 0.45 A.
i. What is the resistance of each the bulbs M and N
ii. What is the energy produced by bulb M in 4 minutes
b) Switch K is then switched on, find
i. The reading on the ammeter
ii. The energy produced by bulb M in 4 minutes

63

2.5.2: Electrical Power

1. Power,

P, is the amount
transferred in 1 second
Energy transferred
Power, P
Time taken

of

energy

; unit watt (W)

2. 1 watt is the power of electrical appliance

which can produce a total energy of 1 J in 1

second.
3. The formulae for electrical power are
2
V
P IV I 2 R
R

64

Example 2.5.2
1. The lamp of a motorcycle is labelled 12 V, 15 W.
(a) Explain the meaning of 12 V, 15 W
(b) What is the value of the current flowing through the lamp

when it is connected to 12 V supply?

(c) How is the resistance of the filament of the lamp?

Exercise 2.5.2
1. An electric kettle is rated 240 V 1500 W. Calculate the

resistance of its heating element and the current at normal

usage.
65

2.5.3: Cost of Using Electrical Energy

1. The unit used to calculate the cost of using

electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh)

2. 1 kWh is the total energy consume by an

electrical appliance of power 1 kW in 1 hour.

Hence, 1 kWh 1000 W 1 hr

1000 J s 1 3600 s
3.6 106 J

66

3. If television set power of 700 W is switch on

for 6 hours a day, the total electrical energy

used in one day is:

Energy Power time

700

kW 6 h
1000
0.7 kW 6 h
4.2 kWh

67

Example 2.5.3
1. The usage of electrical appliance in Abus household in one

day is as shown in table below:

Applianc Number of
e
units
Lamp
8
Television
1
Kettle
1
Fridge
1
Fan
3

Power
(W)
100
700
2000
400
70

Time duration
used (hr)
12
8
1
12
10
68

a) Determine the total electrical energy (in kWh) used in Abus

house in one day
b) Calculate the cost of electrical energy usage in Abus house
in one week if the cost per unit is as follows:
first 100 unit: 22 cent per unit
every additional unit: 26 cent per unit

69

Exercise 2.5.3
1. The usage of electrical appliance in Bakars household in one

day is as shown in table below:

Applianc
e
Lamp
Compute
r
Iron
Fridge
Air
condition

Number of
units
8
1

Power
(W)
36
480

Time duration
used (hr)
12
4

1
1
2

1500
350
700

0.5
24
10
70

a) Determine the total electrical energy (in kWh) used in

Bakarss house in one day
b) Calculate the cost of electrical energy usage in Bakars house
in one week if the cost per unit is as follows:
first 100 unit: 34 cent per unit
every additional unit: 38 cent per unit

71

5.4: Efficient use of Electrical Energy

Step to
save
electricity

72

The importance of
maintaining in
ensuring
efficiency of
electrical
appliance

73

Homework
1) How much electrical energy in joules does a 60 W lamp
consume in
a) 1 minute?
b) 1 hour?
2) What is the maximum power in kilowatts of an appliance that
is connected safely to a 13 A 240 V main socket?
3) A bulb is labelled 12 V 36 W
a) Calculate the current flow and the resistance of the bulb
when it is connected to a 12 V supply
b) The bulb is then connected to a 6 V supply
i. What will happen to the bulb?
ii. Calculate the current flows through the bulb
74

4) Light bulb L1 and L2 are labelled 12 V 24 W and 12 V 36 W

respectively. Both are connected in parallel across a 12 V
supply.
12 V
L1

L2

a) Calculate the current drawn from the 12 V supply.

b) Calculate the resistance of each bulb
c) If the bulbs are connected in series across 12 V supply,
estimate the current drawn from the supply. What will be
the effect on the bulbs of each connection?
75

5) The resistors, 5 and 10 are connected in parallel to a 9 V

supply. Calculate
a) The ratio of the power dissipated in the 5 resistor to the
10 resistor.
b) The output power of the supply

Answer
1. a) 3600 J
b) 216 000 J
2. 3.12 kW
3. a) I = 3A, R = 4 b) ii) 1.5 A

4. a) 5A
5. a) 2:1

b) R1 = 6 , R2 = 4
b) 24.3 W

c) 1.2 A

76