Process Utilities

What are process utilities?

Simple flowsheet: flammable and volatile feed/product

To run the process safely, we need:

cooling water, steam, N2, compressed air, electricity

Cooling water systems

Three systems normally used are:
1). Once through
2). Open evaporative recirculating
3). Closed non-evaporative
recirculating

Once through systems

Cooling water passes through the
heat exchanger once.
Once through systems can be used
when plenty of cheap cool water
is available and adequate facilities
for disposal of warm water exist.

Advantages:
No cooling tower system;
No water treating

Disadvantages:

Corrosion
Fouling
Waste of water
Thermal pollution of river

Open evaporative recirculating systems

Cooling towers evaporate about

1% water. Water is reused after
make up.
Advantages:
Less water required
Enhanced corrosion control
feasible

Disadvantages:
Higher capital cost than once
through
Large cooling towers may be
unacceptable
System purge may pose
environmental problems

Natural draft wet cooling towers

Mechanical draft cooling towers

Crossflow type

Counterflow type

Closed nonevaporative recirculating systems

Cooling water is cooled in a

secondary (air) heat exchanger.
No evaporate, no makeup.
Advantages:
Water remains clean
Cooling water temperature above
100oC is possible

Disadvantages:
High capital cost
Limited by air temperature

Open evaporative systems are

usually used.

Basic calculations for open evaporative recirculating

cooling water systems

FT
700

Evaporative rate:
(m3/hr)
T: temperature difference between feed and return water from cooling
tower (oC); F: circulation rate (m3/hr)
Windage loss, W:
due to liquid entrainment, normally specified by tower manufacturer,
0.01% of circulation for modern units, 0.2% for old units
Purge and Blowdown
Liquid water loss other than windage loss is termed Total Purge (P).
P = B + IL
B: blowdown, to limit solid build up, IL: leaks

Make up
M = E + W + P = E + W + B + IL

 Concentration factor (CF)

Evaporation increases the concentration of solid in the circulation
water.
% X in circulating water

CF

% X in make up

Typically, markers for X are magnesium or chlorine ions.

Calculation of make up and blowdown rates
Mass balance on the marker (X):
MXin = (P + W)Xout = (M - E)Xout
Hence

X out
M E

X
out
in

X
Since C F out
X in

CF
E
M E
E
CF 1
CF 1
B M E W I L

E
B
W IL
CF 1
Therefore, higher CF gives lower M and B.

700

700

E
M E
CF 1

90
80
70

Make up rate (m3/hr)

Example:
Circulation rate = 1000 m3/hr
Tw to tower = 30oC
Tw from tower = 20oC
FT 1000 *(30 20)
E

14.3 m3/hr

60
50
40
30
20
10
1

1.5

Make up rate at different concentration factors:

CF
1.2 1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
M (m3/hr) 85.8 42.9

28.6

21.5

19.1

2.5
CF

3.5

System half life

This is the time taken for the concentration of a soluble
component (e.g. additive to control corrosion) to halve its initial
concentration.
0.69V (C F 1)
t1/ 2

The above is obtained from the mass balance of the additive.

dC (t )
V
0 ( P W )C (t )
dt
dC (t )
P W

dt
C (t )
V
C (t )
P W
ln

t
C ( 0)
V

dC (t )
P W

C (t )
dt
V

dC (t )
P W

C (0) C (t )
V
C (t )

C (t ) C (0)e

P W
t
V

When t = t1/2, C(t) = 0.5C(0),

t1 / 2

0.69V (C F 1)
ln 2
0.69

(P W ) / V (P W ) / V
E

dt
0

C (0)e

E
t
V ( C F 1)

Steam Distribution

Steam is used as a medium for transferring and transporting energy.

Heating by steam condensation (heat exchanger)
Mechanical work done by steam expansion (through turbine)
Energy stored by latent heat and pressure

Therefore, transport of steam = energy transport

In plant environment, typically a steam system includes:

Central steam boiler

Steam main circuit around plant
Heat exchangers for process heating
Condensate return line to boiler

Issues for steam distribution

Distribution pressure
Pipe expansion
Heat loss
Condensate/air removal

Distribution pressure
High pressure
Advantages:
smaller mains
low installation cost
less insulation required

Disadvantages:
high pressure heat exchanger equipment or local pressure reduction
valves required
difficult to recover low grade heat (low temperature) as regenerated
steam

The above are reversed for lower pressure distribution

Pipe expansion

Difference in pipe dimension

when in use and when not in use
Expansion allowance required
Expansion fittings:
Sliding joint

Full loop

Bellows

Horse shoe

Heat loss prevention

Steam is hotter than surroundings, therefore heat loss is
inevitable.
Lagging is used to prevent heat loss (see Heat Transfer lecture
notes)
Typically lagged pipe heat loss 5-10% of that from bare pipe

Condensate/air removal (steam traps)

Condensate collects at low points

in pipe system.
If not removed, pipe network will
eventually be liquid filled.
Water hammer: Fast moving gas
meets slow moving slug of liquid
resulting in rapid vibration of pipe
work.
Condensate accumulation
controlled by deliberate slops in
pipe work with intermittent drain
points.
Drain points are known as Steam
traps.

Types of steam traps

1. Thermostatic steam traps

Based on temperature difference between steam and condensate.

Liquid expansion steam trap
Bimetallic steam trap
Balanced pressure steam trap

2. Mechanical float steam trap

Based on density difference between steam and condensate.

Liquid expansion steam trap

Mechanic float steam trap

Bimetallic steam trap

(www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineeringtutorials)

Steam trap opening temperature selection

In case P3, the steam trap open

temperature is set too low and the
steam trap has to cool a long way
before condensate is released.
Therefore, condensate will collect
in the steam distribution system.

T em perature

For a thermostatic type steam trap,

the trap open temperature should
be selected according to the
operating pressure and the
corresponding steam saturation
temperature.
At a given operating pressure, the
trap open temperature should be
selected slightly lower than the
steam saturation temperature at
that pressure (the case of P2).
In case P1, the steam trap open
temperature is set too high and the
steam trap will keep open even
after all the condensate has
drained.

Tsat
Topen

P1

P2

P3

Pressure

Air removal

When the steam system is shut

down, the pipe network is usually
air filled.

Air can be purged using

thermostatic steam traps because
the temperature of air is lower
than that of steam.

Water treatment
Evaporation in the cooling tower causes a build up of
suspended/dissolved solids which can inhibit heat transfer by
building up on heat exchanger surfaces - usually mould steel.
Two problems in cooling water system:
1). Fouling
silting/sedimentation (particles in source water, e.g. sand)
scaling (precipitation of salts)
biological growth (heat, oxygen, phosphates promote biological growth)

2). Corrosion
Boiler feed water needs also be treated to prevent fouling and
corrosion.

Scale formation
Precipitation of the least soluble salts may occur, e.g. CaCO3,
CaSO4.
Ca++ + 2(HCO3)-- CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
High concentration of Ca++ and SO4-- may also gives calcium
sulphate scale (CaSO4).
Scale impairs heat transfer efficiency and may increase
pumping cost.
With stainless steel, scaling may promote stress corrosion
cracking.

Scale prevention

Higher system purge to reduce CF at the expense of higher

water/chemical costs.
Soften makeup water: using external ion exchangers.
Acid treatment to reduce [CO3--]: with water of medium to
high CaCO3, i.e. > 800 mg/l, reducing the alkalinity to 20 - 40
mg/l will reduce CO3-- below the scaling level. H2SO4 or HCl
are normally used.
Scale inhibitors: modify crystal scale growth
inorganic: polyphosphates
organic: phosphorous compounds

Ion exchange

Ions dissolved in the water are swapped with H + and OH- ions held on
different gel beads (ion exchanger resins).
Beads are cross linked polymers containing ionic functional groups.
The polymers are formed into porous particles to allow large contact area.
Beads release H+ in exchange for metal ions.
e.g.
R-H+ + Ca2+ H+ + RCa+
These beads form cationic exchange resin.
Beads release OH- in exchange for other anions. These beads form anionic
exchange resin.
Typically resins have a weaker affinity for monovalent ions than for
divalent ions (e.g. Ca2+)
most salts are removed down to << 1ppm through ion exchange

Ion exchange

An ion exchanger can have two beds in series:

cationic resin removes Ca2+ etc.
anionic resin removes Cl- etc.

The result from an ion exchanger is DEIONISED WATER, or demineralised.

The capacity of an ion exchanger is not infinite and the supply of H +/ OH- can be
exhausted.
Regeneration of resins:
i). Back wash with H2O
ii). Cationic resin rinsed with excess H+, e.g. H2SO4
iii). Anionic resin rinsed with excess OH-, e.g. NaOH

Overall, ion exchangers are used for removing 1000 - 2000 mg/l of solute.
Otherwise, regeneration becomes too frequent.
Difference between boiler feedwater treatment and cooling water treatment:
The requirement for boiler feed water treatment is stringent than for cooling water
treatment.
More hazardous operation (generating steam at high temperature and high pressure).
Main problem concentrated in single unit operation (boiler).

(www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials)

Removal of suspended solids

Flocculation larger particles larger terminal velocity (ut)

Sedimentation
Final filtration
For very fine suspended particles (< 1m), it is expensive to
filter them out.
Small pore size = high P
rapid clogging of filter
coagulate to larger particles more easily removed.

Coagulation
Addition of Al2(SO4)3 (coagulant) forms a precipitate with
Ca(HCO3)2 in water.
Al2(SO4)3+3Ca(HCO3)2 2Al(OH)3+3CaSO4+6CO2
Al(OH)3 forms small particles which bind to the suspended
solids, forming flocks.
Other matters (bacteria, organics, etc.) become enmeshed in
flocks
pH 5.8-7.4 required to ensure precipitate of Al(OH)3
other coagulant available, e.g. FeSO4, FeCl3

 Sedimentation

Easiest way of removing flocs, settling out of flocs

Relies on terminal velocity of particles.
If ut is still small, flocculation aids are used to form larger particles.
Flocculation aids:

long polymer molecules that stitch between flocs larger

particles lager ut shorter settling time
Filtration
In typical cake filter, filter cake is responsible for filtering, i.e. coarse particles
produce filter medium.
For very fine particles, the filter cake produced has very small pores.
liquid cannot penetrate easily
filter blocks rapidly

use deep bed filtration

Liquid is passed through a bed of sand. Eventually fine particles
make contact with solid surface and attach themselves.