History of Manufacturing

Pascal Dennis, pp. 1-11

Craft Production

Made to customer specifications

Single piece manfuacturing
Variable quality
Minimal inventory
High cost...made for the wealthy

Dysfunction

Mass Production

Work

Interchangeable parts - Eli Whitney

Division of labor - Frederick Taylor
Assembly lines - Henry Ford
Low product variety - Henry Ford
Labor strife

Lean Production

1875

1900

1925

1950

High product variety

Small batch sizes
Parts Per Million (PPM) quality
Reduced lead times
Engaged workforce

1975

2000

2025

Alienation
Quality
Machinery
Engineering

What is Value?
Value

A capability provided to a customer at the right

time at an appropriate price, as defined in each
case by the customer
Specify value from the perspective of the final
customer or end user
Ask how your current products and processes
disappoint your customers value expectations?

Design and Improve Value

Value

Measured by the amount that customers (buyers) are willing to pay for a
product or service
A business is profitable if the value it creates exceeds the cost of performing
the value activities

Value Chain

A system linking an organizations interdependent technological and

economic value activities that are performed to do business
The entire chain of value creation from materials to production to final
consumption, involving multiple companies. Supply chain + final customer

Competitive Advantage

To gain competitive advantage over it rivals, an organization must either

perform these activities at a lower cost or perform them in a way that leads
to differentiation and a premium price (or more value-added)

Value System
The value chain of suppliers who provide inputs (raw materials, components,
and purchased services) to the firms value chain that passes its products through
its distribution value chains to a purchased input to the value chain of the buyer
Flow of Goods and Services

Supplier
Firm Value Distribution Buyer Value
Value Chains
Chain
Value Chains
Chains

Suppliers

Manufacturing

Operations
460:
Designing
Operations

Distribution

Buyer

Operations 468:
Manufacturing
and Supply
Chain Strategy

Value System for Bread

Supply Chain Data

Unit: 1 loaf
Wheat

$0.25

Transportation

$0.08

Flour Processing

Value Streams

$0.15

Bread-Making

$0.44

Price Markup

$0.21

Firm Value
Chain

Value Stream
Definition

Entire set of activities (both value added and non-value added) required to
design, order, and make from raw material to the finished good a specific
product, product family, or service that seeks to eliminate waste and
optimize the productive system in order to satisfy the final customer
Includes all the activities needed to proceed from

Concept to launch (Design)

Order to delivery (Build)
Delivery to recycle (Sustain)

Value and Perfect Process

All value is the result of a value stream

(process) and specified by the customer

Every organization searches for the perfect
process
Every activity within the process must be:

Valuable
Capable (Six Sigma)
Available (Total Productive Maintenance)
Adequate (Theory of Constraints)
Flexible (Toyota Production System)

Failure along any of these dimensions

produces waste

Definitions of Lean
Process for doing more with less and less less
human effort, less equipment, less time, and less
space while coming closer and closer to providing
customers exactly what they want

James Womack and Daniel T. Jones

A systematic approach to identifying and

eliminating waste through continuous improvement
by flowing the product at the pull rate of the
customer in pursuit of perfection

Process of analyzing information and material flows

in manufacturing environments and continuously
improving the process to achieve enhanced value for
the customer

Lean Thinking
Cost reduction principle (Toyota)

Price (Fixed) Cost = Profit

Reduce internal costs to ensure profit

Fundamental objectives

Concentrate on each product, service, and

its value stream rather than organizations,
assets, technologies, and career paths
Ask which activities are waste and which
activities truly create value
Enhance the value and eliminate the waste
(muda) to optimize the whole value stream!

Lean Core Goals

PQCDSM

House of Lean

Toyota-House of Lean

Pascal Dennis, pp. 20

A3 Thinking for Hard Times

Lean Enterprise Principles

Specify value in the eyes of the

customer
Identify and map the value
stream
Eliminate the 8 deadly wastes
Make value and work flow
Pull work at the rate of customer
demand
Involve and empower employees
Continuously improve (kaizen) in
the pursuit of perfection

Lean Culture
Organizational Culture

The specific collection of assumptions, beliefs, values, and normal behavior that are shared by people and
groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders
outside the organization

Lean Culture

Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA)
Standardization
Standard Work and Problem Solving (5 Whys)
Visual Management
5S, Good housekeeping, Visual Controls
Teamwork
Safety, Security, No Executive Privileges, Genchi Genbutsu (Go See)
Paradox
Jidoka, Changing Standards, Single Piece Flow, Takt Time, Perfection
Intensity
Identify Muda (Waste), Kaizen (continuous improvement)
Lean as a Path
Humility, Lifelong Learning, Respect for People

Team Presentations
Project: Value Stream Mapping

Project Progress Report

5 minutes for Presentation
Structure of Final Project Presentation
15 Minutes for Presentation
10 Minutes for Presentation
5 Minutes for Questions

Maximum 10 PowerPoint Slides

Including Introductory and
Conclusions Slides

All team members must participate

Invite Company Contact Person to

Attend
Peer Evaluations

Designing and
Improving
Operations

Characteristics of Effective Teams

A clear purpose (mission or objective)

Agreed upon goals that relate to the purpose
Clear roles and equitable work assignments
Full participation by all members
Informal and relaxed climate
Effective listening and asking questions
Accountability for commitments
Consensus decision-making in a timely manner
Shared leadership
External relations with stakeholders and for resources
Open and honest communication
Personal relationships build on trust and respect
Civilized disagreement and no avoiding conflict
Diversity of styles, skills, and responsibilities
Self-assessment and periodic examination

Project Team Meetings

Value Stream Mapping Project

Current State Value Stream Map and

make recommendations
See Course Outline, pages 2-4
Blackboard
APICS Style Guideline
Team Meeting/Attendance Record
Project Structure
Overview of Corporation
Value Stream Mapping Process
Detailed Value Stream Map
Improvement Recommendations
References and Acknowledgements

Team Meeting Session

Introduction of team members

Exchange major, telephone, email
Discuss schedules for meeting times
Coordinator arranges the first meeting

Six Steps to Lean

Eight Major Wastes

D efects

Overproduction
Waiting time
N on-utilized people
Transportation
Inventory
Motion
Extra processing

Overproduction

Acronym:

DOWNTIME

Categories of Activities
Value Added (VA) Actual Work

Steps in the value stream that increase

the worth of a product or service for
which the customer is willing to pay
Ask 3 questions

Is this something the customer would be

willing to pay for?
Has it physically improved the form, fit,
or function of the product or service?
Was it done right the first time?

Definition of Waste
Waste (Muda)

Anything other than the minimum amount of

equipment, materials, parts, space, and
workers time which are absolutely essential
to add value to the product or service
Any activity that consumes resources but
creates no value to the product or service
Waste only adds cost and time, not value

Factors to Remember about Waste

Waste is really a symptom rather than a root

cause of the problem
Waste points to problems within the system
(at both process and value stream levels)
You need to find and address causes of waste

Categories of Waste
Type I Waste (Muda) Auxiliary Work

Adds no value but is necessary

Toyota Motor Corporation of Japan calls
this Non-Value Added Work (NVA)
Training, facilities, inspection, payroll

Type II Waste (Muda)

Adds no value and avoidable

Walking, rework, searching for tools,
transportation, setups, meetings

Most of engineering and manufacturing

efforts fall under which category?

Categories of Work Activities

Examples:
Weld flange onto part
Bolt part onto product

Value
Adding

Work

Distribution
of Activities

Examples:
Pull down tool
Unclamp & clamp fixture

Activities

Non-Valued
Added Work

Examples:
Walking to get parts
Waiting time

Waste

House ofLean
Lean-Eight
Enterprise Wastes
Single-Piece
Flow

Cellular
Manufacturing

Total Productive
Maintenance (TPM)

Point of Use
Storage

Pull / Kanban
System (JIT)

Batch Size
Reductions

Standardized
Work

Group
Technology

Quality at the
Source (TQM)

Value Stream Mapping (VSM)

Eight
Wastes

Kaizen
Teams

Takt
Time

Design for
Manufacturing

Quick
Setup (SMED)
Plant
Layout
5S System
Visual Controls

Video: Mercury Marine

Overview of Manufacturing Process

122 individual steps to make a Driveshaft Housing

27 production steps about 20% of the total number
Travel distance = 20,793 feet (about 4 miles)
1,496 hours in process (about 19 weeks)
106 people touched assembly or paperwork

Discussion Questions

Identify and provide examples of 4 types of process waste depicted

in the video
Identify potential activities that could be conducted in parallel
and increase the capacity of the current process
How can Mercury Marine utilize kaizen events to improve their
supply chain process?

Overproduction Waste
Overproduction

Overproduction
Current State 10 operators

100 pieces
But I only need
100 pieces

Apparent Efficiency 10 operators

120 pieces
Customer

True Efficiency 8 operators 100 pieces

Inventory Waste

Apex Cell Layout

Too much walking distance Ample space for accumulating WIP
Inside of cell too wide
Tube bender needs modification
Lead-off and final operations too far apart
Out tray for bender obstructs walking

Before applying guidelines

After applying guidelines

Waste in U.S. Manufacturing

Waste in Manufacturing Facilities is Usually
Disguised as:

Lost Time
Injury Accident
Scrap
Rework
Equipment Setups
Equipment Downtime

Inspection
Inventory Storage
Counting Inventory
Supplier Lead Times
Product Test
Other

Commentary on Waste
One of the most noteworthy accomplishments in
keeping the price of products low is the gradual
shortening of the production cycle. The longer an
article is in the process of manufacture and the more
it is moved about, the greater is its ultimate cost

Who said this?

When was it said?

Muri, Mura, Muda

Muri

Strain, difficulty, hard to do

Overburdening equipment or
operators by requiring them to run
at a higher or harder pace with
more force or longer period of time
than equipment design or
management allows (ergonomics)

Mura

Irregularity, variability
Unevenness or fluctuation in a
production plan, operation or an
uneven work pace in an operation
causing operators to hurry and then
wait

Muda

Muri = overburdened

Mura = unevenness, fluctuation, variation

Muda = waste

No Muri, Mura, or Muda

HouseLean
of Enterprise
Lean-Kaizen
Single-Piece
Flow

Cellular
Manufacturing

Total Productive
Maintenance (TPM)

Point of Use
Storage

Pull / Kanban
System (JIT)

Batch Size
Reductions

Standardized
Work

Group
Technology

Quality at the
Source (TQM)

Value Stream Mapping (VSM)

Eight
Wastes

Kaizen
Teams

Takt
Time

Design for
Manufacturing

Quick
Setup (SMED)
Plant
Layout
5S System
Visual Controls

Kaizen Principles

Kaikaku is the radical improvement of an activity to eliminate non-value-adding waste (also

called breakthrough, flow or system kaizen)
Kaizen is the continuous, incremental improvement of an activity to create more value with
less waste (muda) (also called process kaizen)
Kaizen focus on the gemba, the gembutsu, and the genjitsu to succeed

Gemba the actual place

Gembutsu the actual product

In manufacturing, value is created on the shop

floor the gemba
People working in the gemba know best
how to improve
Parts, tools, machines, and equipment

Genjitsu the actual facts

Facts on the company from reliable, observed

data most often collected from the gemba

Kai

zen

Change

Good

DVD: Toast Kaizen

Outline

Produced by Greater Boston Manufacturing Partnership (GBMP)

Organization

Analysis of Current State making toast and improving the system

Toast-Making Value Stream Process
Equipment Toaster
Bruce Hamilton
Operator
Bread, Plate, Butter, and Knife
Materials
Mrs. Bruce Hamilton
Customer

Lean Thinking

Direct observation of value stream processes

Develop effective counter-measures through kaizen

DVD: Toast Kaizen

Waste

Waste is identified through direct observation

Taichi Ohno and Shigeo Shingo
Identifying waste is more important than eliminating the waste

Participant Question

What suggestions do you have for eliminating waste and improving

the toast making system for Bruce?

What is Work?
Definition of Work

Human motions involved in producing products

These actions can be divided into three categories
Value-added or creating
Movements directly necessary for making products, such as
assembling, welding, drilling, and painting

Incidental or Non-valued added work

Motions that operators must perform to make products but
which do not create value from the standpoint of the customer

Waste
Motions that create no value and which can be eliminated

Work element

Smallest increment of work that could be moved to another person

Exercise 1: Apex Manufacturing

Apex Welding Process

Process flow diagram

Table of work elements and work
element times for welded part

Assignment

Review the process flow diagram

Review the 14 work element steps
Under the Motion Category,
categorize each work element as only
one of the following:
W = Waste
I = Incidental (non-valued
added) Work
V = Value-Added Work
14 Work Elements = 50 Seconds

Exercise 1: Apex Work

Classification

Exercise 1: Apex Flow

Diagram

Standard Work
Definition

Lean techniques in continuous flow production to assure maximum

performance through kaizen by minimizing waste through the best
combination of operator and machine

Objective

Establish precise procedures for each operators work in a

production process based upon:
Takt Time rate at which products must be made in a process to
meet customer demand
Work Sequence order in which an operator performs task
within takt time in a given process
Standard Work In-Process (SWIP) Inventory units, including
those in machines, required to keep the process operating
smoothly without the operator standing in front of a machine

Standard Work Benefits

Process Stability

Satisfy productivity, quality, cost, delivery, safety, and morale

Clear Start and Stop Points for Each Process

Organizational Learning

Retains operator and process knowledge

Assess Current Condition and Identify Problems

Is the process smooth or are workers failing behind and why?

Employee Involvement and Pokayoke (mistake proofing)

Kaizen

Standard Work provides stable process for improvement

Training

Basis for employee training

Standard Work Definitions

Takt Time

Available production time divided by customer demand

Establishes the rate or rhythm for Standard Work

Takt Time

Available Production Time

=
Customer Demand

Cycle Time

Operator Cycle Time

The time it takes an operator to complete all the work elements at

the station before repeating them, as timed by direct observation,
including walking, load/unload, inspection

Machine Cycle Time

Time a machine requires to complete all of its operations on one piece

Standard Work Definitions

Total Product Cycle Time or Production Lead Time

The time it takes one unit or piece to move all the way through a
process or value stream
At the plant level, this is termed door-to-door

Total Operators Required

Total Product Cycle Time divided by Takt Time

Total Product Cycle Time
Sum of individual operator cycle times

Total
Operators
Required

Total Product Cycle Time

=
Takt Time

Perspectives on Standard Work

Benefits

Documentation of the Current State process for all shifts

Reductions in variability
Easier training of new operators
Reductions in injuries and strain
Baseline for kaizen activities
Exposes problems and facilitates problem-solving
Helps standardize effort

Prerequisites

Activities must be:

Observable
Repetitive
Based upon on human motion

Standard Work Diagrams

Basic documentation for Standard Work

Standard Work Chart

Schematic of the physical layout of a cell or process
Time Observation Form
Concentrates on manual and walking work elements
Standard Work Combination Sheet
Integrates manual, machine, and walking work
elements
Operator Balance Chart (OBC)
Shows the total operator cycle time of each operator
in a cell or process
Production or Process Capacity Chart
Studies total machine time including any load/unload

Operator Balance Chart and Design

Observe and record actual times
Conduct paper kaizen
Eliminate waste, minimize

incidental work
Ignore walking times
Check equipment capacity
Compute Number of Operators
= Work content / takt time
Plan the work for one operator
Develop Operator Balance Chart
Debugging = 2-4 weeks

Time Work Elements

Collect real time at processes thru direct observation
Observe an operator qualified to perform the job
Position yourself so you can see the operators hand

motions
Time each work element separately, not the total time
required to perform a sequence of work elements
Time the operators complete cycle of work elements
from start to finish several times
Always separate operator time from machine time
Select the lowest repeatable time for each element
Avoid using standard time or time-and-motion studies
Time work not the operator
Remember shop floor courtesy

Time Observation-Current State

Map

Exercise: Time Observation Studies

Objective

Educate students on the basic process of time studies by demonstrating work

sequence, work elements, Standard Work-in-Process (SWIP) inventory,
quality checks, and observation points for data collection

Manufacturing Scenario

Materials
3 Machine Posters
Supply of 3 x 5 Post-In Notes, Masking Tape, Marking Pen
Stopwatches, Calculators, and Time Observation Sheets
Standard Work Sheet
Raw Material Storage Location
3 Machines positioned 10-15 feet apart in sequence
Finished Goods Storage Location
Single Operator
2 Industrial Engineers

Exercise: Time Observation Studies

Before Exercise

Description of Machine Posters and symbols

Identify Work Elements
Work element
the smallest increment of work that could be moved to another person

Discussion of work elements

List each work element on Time Observation Form

Determine time observation points

Point where work elements start and stop
Operator calls out TIME where observation should be made

Exercise

1 Operator
2 Industrial Engineers
1 - Watch stopwatch and call out TIME at each observation point
2 - Record continuous times on Time Observation Form

Exercise: Standard Work Sheet 1

Exercise: First Simulation Run

Instructor (Operator) says START

Pick up Post-It from Raw Materials Location
Load Post-It on Machine 1 and Press Start Button

TIME

Wait for Machine 1 Cycle Time 10 seconds

TIME

Unload from Machine 1 and Walk to Machine 2

TIME

Load Part on Machine 2 and Press Start Button

TIME

Wait for Machine 2 Cycle Time.. 8 seconds

TIME

Unload Part and Perform Quality Check

Walk to Machine 3

TIME

TIME

Load Part on Machine 3 and Press Start Button

TIME

Wait for Machine 3 Cycle Time.12 seconds

TIME

Unload Part and Place Part in Finished Goods

TIME

Walk back to Raw Material Location

TIME

Time Observation Form

Measure Manual and Walking Time for a Process

Total Operating Time (Process Cycle Time) = Manual Work plus Walking Time
Observe the process 2 - 3 times to understand the sequence of tasks
Enter component tasks on Time Observation Form (TOF)

Measure Time

Without turning off the stopwatch, record continuous time at the end of each component task
and enter values in black in the Top Half of the square provided
Note any exceptional tasks or times observed

Calculate Time for Each Task

When cycles completed, for each task, subtract stopwatch time from previous task time value
Enter task time in Red in the Bottom Half of the square provided

Find the Time for One Process Cycle (columns)

Enter in Red the sum of the task times for each observation cycle

Select the lowest cycle time over all observations (do not include abnormal values)
Determine times for each component task (rows)

Select the lowest or lowest repeated time (do not include exceptions)
Adjust large component tasks to match the lowest cycle time (do not change the cycle time)
Enter adjusted component task times in Red

Time Observation Form Example

Problems and Exercises

Time Observation Form Example

First Simulation Run

Perform simulation

Single Operator processes the work

Conduct 5 cycles through the machines
Industrial Engineers collect time observation data

Questions

What is the slowest Cycle Time over the observations?

How much time did the Operator spend waiting?
If the Operator works 27,000 seconds per day, what is the capacity in
units per shift of the process?
What changes might reduce or eliminate waiting time?

Exercise: Standard Work Sheet 2

Exercise: Second Simulation Run

Perform total process after the Instructor says START

Pick up Post-It from Raw Materials Location

Unload Processed Post-It from Machine 1

Load New Part on Machine 1 and Press Start Button..TIME

Machine 1 Cycle Time10 seconds

Walk to Machine 2 with Processed Part from Machine 1 TIME

Unload Processed Part from Machine 2

Load Processed Part from Machine 1 and Press Start Button TIME

Machine 2 Cycle Time 8 seconds

Perform Quality Check on Processed Part Removed from Machine 2...TIME

Walk to Machine 3 with Processed/Approved Part from Machine 2.. TIME

Unload Part from Machine 3 and Load Processed Part from Machine 2

Press Start Button and Place Part in Finished Goods Location.. TIME

Machine 3 Cycle Time12 seconds

Walk back to Raw Material Storage Location.. TIME

Second Simulation Run

Perform simulation

One Unit of Standard Work-in-Process Inventory at each Machine

Single Operator processes the work and conducts 5 cycles
Industrial Engineers collect time observation data

Questions

What is the slowest Cycle Time over the 5 observations?

How much time did the Operator spend waiting?
If the Operator works 27,000 seconds per day, what is the capacity in
units per shift of the process?
What changes might reduce or eliminate waste in the process?

Decrease walking by placing Machines closer together

Install automatic ejecting devices on machines
Reduce machine cycle times

Time Observation Form Example

Standard Work Combination Sheet

Filling out a Standard Work Combination Sheet

Operation Time for Each Task (Symbols)

Total the wait time for each task required to complete one cycle

Total Walk Time

Total the manual times for each task required to complete one cycle

Total Wait Time

Manual work
Machine (Auto)
Walking
Wait time
Takt Time
Red Line

Total Manual Time

Indicate the sequence of steps in the operation and description of operations

Manual times drawn from the Time Observation Form and Machine (Auto) times collected from the
Process Capacity Form
Walk time associated with each task

Total walk times observed to complete one cycle

Total Operating Time

Total Operating Time = Total Manual Time + Total Walk Time

Standard Combination Sheet Example

Operator Balance Chart

Objectives

Identify where operators are under-utilized and where their process

cycle time is greater than the takt time
Leads to more detailed analysis of the process using the Standard Work
Combination Sheet

Constructing an Operator Balance Chart

Use the data (best time) from the Time Observation Sheet
The vertical axis shows time, horizontal axis shows operator
Draw an individual bar showing the cycle time for each operator
Write the total time at the top of each bar
Draw a horizontal line in Red, indicating the takt time
Calculate operator requirements as sum of cycle times (Total Product
Cycle Time) divided by takt time

Number of Operators Required = (Total Product Cycle Time) / Takt Time

Operator Balance Chart

Exercise: Standard Work Sheet 3

Exercise 2: Apex Manufacturing

Apex Welding Process

Table of work elements and work

element times for welded part

Assignment

Calculate the Takt Time

Available Time per Shift

Construct the Operator Balance

Chart (OBC)

Draw line for Takt Time

Assign Work Elements using
Work Element times

Operator Cycle < Takt Time

Calculate the Number of

Operators Required

Exercise 1: Apex Flow

Diagram

Exercise 1: Apex Work

Classification

Guidelines for Number of Operators

Process Study and Kaizen

Process Study Form

Best way to do the job

Repeatedly observed actual work

Paper Kaizen

Approach of immediately leaving out waste

Do not include any walking as a work element
Do not include getting raw material or placing parts on tables
Do not include out-of-cycle work for operators as work elements
Periodic work like feeding a machine every 25 pieces
Getting a bin of parts or making a quality check

Do not include operators waiting for machines to cycle

Do not include time for removing finished parts from machines
when you believe that automatic eject could be introduced

Paper Kaizen
Operator Activity Chart
Detail the specific work

elements of each worker

Displays cumulative time to
perform one product cycle
Shows the interaction
between Operator and
Machine
Called an Operator
-Machine Chart
Highlights waste and nonvalued added activities
Perform paper kaizen to
develop Future State of new
standard work content

Exercise 3: Apex Manufacturing

Apex Welding Process

Table of work elements and work

element times for welded part

Assignment

Paper Kaizen
What steps would you
eliminate in the process?
Construct the Operator Balance
Chart (OBC)
Draw line for Takt Time
Assign Work Elements using
Work Element times
Calculate the Number of
Operators Required

Exercise 1: Apex Work

Classification

Assembly Line Balancing

Steps in Assembly Line Balancing (ALB)

Construct Precedence Diagram

Estimate Task Times
Time Observation Form
Compute Cycle Time or Takt Time
Theoretical Number of Work Stations

Assignment Heuristics

Assign tasks to work stations

Assignment Heuristics
Longest Operation Time
Largest Number of Followers
Largest Positional Weight
Calculate efficiency of solution

Line Balancing Procedure

Determine the tasks (work elements)

required to complete one finished unit

and the sequence in which the tasks
must be performed
Construct an assembly precedence
diagram
Estimate task times

Amount of time it takes a worker using

standard times to perform each task

Determine the takt or cycle time

Amount of time between successive units

coming off the line

Assembly Line Balancing

Product Layout - Assembly Line
Progressive assembly linked by some material handling device
Assembly Line Balancing Algorithm
1. Develop precedence diagram and work element times
2. Determine the Cycle Time (CT):
CT = Available Work Time / Required output per day in units
3. Determine Theoretical Minimum Number of work stations (N t)

Nt = Sum of task times (T) / Cycle Time (CT)

4. Select Assignment Heuristics
5. Assign tasks until sum of task times equals cycle time
6. Evaluate the efficiency of the assignment solution
Efficiency = Sum of task times / [ ( N a ) * Cycle Time (CT) ]
7. If efficiency is unsatisfactory, apply different assignment heuristics

Assembly Line Example

Assembly Line Diagram

Assembly Line Balancing

Product Layout - Assembly Line
Progressive assembly linked by some material handling device
Assembly Line Balancing Algorithm
1. Develop precedence diagram, current cycle times, work elements
2. Determine the Cycle Time (CT):
CT = Available Work Time / Required output per day in units
3. Determine Theoretical minimum number of work stations (N t)

Nt = Sum of task times (T) / Cycle Time (CT)

4. Select Assignment Heuristics
5. Assign tasks until sum of task times equals cycle time
6. Evaluate the efficiency of the assignment solution
Efficiency = Sum of task times / [ ( N a ) * Cycle Time (CT) ]
7. If efficiency is unsatisfactory, apply different assignment heuristics

Assignment Heuristics
Largest Number of Followers

Assign tasks to work stations by selecting the feasible task that

has the largest number of tasks following it back through the
sequence of assembly

Longest Operation Time

Assign tasks to work stations by selecting the feasible task that

has the longest operation time

Largest Ranked Positional Weight

Ranked positional weight is the sum of a specific tasks operation

time and the times of all the tasks that follow it back through the
sequence of assembly
Assign tasks to work stations by selecting the feasible task that
has the largest ranked positional weight.

Assembly Line Balancing

Steps in Assembly Line Balancing (ALB)

Construct Precedence Diagram

Estimate Task Times
Time Observation Form
Compute Cycle Time or Takt Time
Theoretical Number of Work Stations

Assignment Heuristics

Assign tasks to work stations

Assignment Heuristics
Longest Operation Time
Largest Number of Followers
Largest Positional Weight
Calculate efficiency of solution

Assembly Line Work Stations

Precedence Network for Assembly
12 sec.

1
45 sec.

11 sec.

9 sec.

12 sec.

50 sec.

15 sec.

12 sec.

12 sec.

8 sec.

9 sec .

Assembly
Line LOT

Ranked Positional Weights

Assembly Solution - RPW

Assembly Line
Exercise 1
Exercise Reading
Assembly Line Balancing Exercise 1
Reliance Motor Corporation (RMC)
Production data

Available work time = 27,600 seconds

Output requirement = 460 motors

Review the table with the assembly line

tasks, duration, immediate predecessors
Complete the following assignment:

Construct the precedence diagram

What is the cycle time and theoretical
minimum number of work stations?
Apply (1) Longest Operation Time and (2)
Largest Positional Weight heuristics to
assign tasks to work stations
What is the resulting efficiency of the
assembly line?

Blackboard
OPS 460 > Assignments > Assembly Line
Balancing

Assembly Exercise 1 Network

Assembly Line
Exercise 2
Exercise Reading
Assembly Line Balancing Exercise 2
Vancouver Racer Corporation
Production data

Available work time = 27,000 seconds

Output requirement = 300 racers

Review the table with the assembly line

tasks, duration, immediate predecessors
Complete the following assignment:

Construct the precedence diagram

What is the cycle time and theoretical
minimum number of work stations?
Apply (1) Longest Operation Time and (2)
Largest Number of Followers heuristics to
assign tasks to work stations
What is the resulting efficiency of the
assembly line?
Answer: 91.1.%

Blackboard
OPS 460 > Assignments > Assembly Line
Balancing

Improve Cycle Time

The longest task time is the shortest or

minimum cycle time

Options for reducing the cycle or takt time
below the longest task time duration

Split the task

Share the task
Use parallel workstations
Use a more highly skilled worker
Work overtime
Redesign the product to reduce task time
Redesign the assembly process or workplace
to reduce task time

Superior Facility Layouts

Manufacturing Operations

Straight-line flow pattern

Backtracking minimized
Production setup and run
times are predictable
Minimum work-in-process
inventory
Visible and open floor plans
Bottleneck operations
controlled
Workstations located close to
each other
Orderly material handling
Flexible

Service Operations

Simple service flow pattern

Sufficient waiting areas
Easy communication with
customers
Easily maintained customer
surveillance
Clear exit and entry points
Customers only see necessary
processes
Minimum movement
Lack of clutter
High sales volume per square
foot