Chapter01-Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins

Chapter 1
Carbohydrates, Lipids, and

Proteins
Copyright 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Objectives
Distinguish between different types of carbohydrates
Identify two major fiber types and their roles in health
Discuss physiologic responses to different dietary carbohydrates
in the development of Type II diabetes and obesity
Identify the amount and distribution of carbohydrate energy
storage in the average male
Summarize the role of carbohydrate in energy metabolism
Describe the dynamics of carbohydrate and fat metabolism along
the physical activity intensity/duration continuum
Compare/contrast the speed of energy transfer of carbohydrates
and fats
Discuss how diet affects muscle/liver glycogen and endurance
performance
Describe food sources and health implications of different types
of fatty acids
Describe major blood lipoproteins and role in CHD development
Copyright
2010 Wolters Kluwer Health
| Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins
Understand
prudent
recommendations
for dietary fat and
Objectives, cont.
Identify the amount and distribution of fat energy storage in the
average female
List functions of fat in the body
Discuss training adaptations in the use of carbohydrates and fats
Distinguish between essential and nonessential amino acids
Discuss the health and performance advantages and possible
limitations of a vegetarian diet
Describe the dynamics of protein metabolism along the physical
activity intensity/duration continuum
Provide a rationale for increasing dietary protein intake above
the RDA for individuals engaged in strenuous endurance and/or
resistance training
Describe the use of protein in energy metabolism and the Cori
cycle in gluconeogenesis
Nutrients for Health and Performance

Macronutrients (containing energy)
Nutrient
Carbohydrates
Fats
Protein
Atwater
Factor
(Kcalg-1)
Acceptable
Macronutrient
Distribution Range
Main Energy Food;

Most Efficient Energy
Substrate
An Important and Most
Abundant Energy
Source
45-65%
20-35%
Energy Source, Tissue

Builder, Enzymes and
Metabolic Regulators
10-35%
Micronutrients (metabolic regulators/coenzymes)

Vitamins
Organic Regulators
NA
Minerals
Inorganic Regulators
NA
Water
Solvent
NA
Carbohydrates
Three Classifications of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Basic unit of carbohydrates
Oligosaccharides
2-10 monosaccharides bonded chemically
Polysaccharides
3 to thousands of sugar molecule linkages
Photosynthesis An Endergonic Process
Photosynthesis is the conversion of solar energy to

chemical energy in plants.
The following net reaction: 6H2O + 6CO2 6O2+ C6H12O6
occurs in the chloroplasts, analogous to mitochondria in
animals.
These reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane and
the stroma. The thykaloid membrane is analogous to
the mitochondrial inter-membrane that is highly folded
upon itself to create a large surface area of grana discs
(analogous to the mitochondrial cristae).
The stroma is the cytoplasm of the chloroplast.
Site of lightindependent (dark)
reactions
Site of lightdependent (light)
reactions
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/f05pm/lect08a.htm
Light-dependent reactions
Photon
Photon
4eElectron
Acceptor
4eElectron
Acceptor
Ele
Tra ctro
n
n
Ch spor
ain t
4eP 700
Photosystem I
on thykaloid
membranes
P 680
Photosystem II
on thykaloid
membranes
H+
2H2O
4e-
4H+ + O2
Ele
Tra ctro
ns n
Ch por
ain t
NADP+ NADPH H+
ATP formation by
chemi-osmotic proton
gradient
ATP
Calvin-Benson Cycle
Ribulose 1,5bisphosphate
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
CO2 3-Phosphoglycerate ATP ADP

Phosphoglycerate
Kinase
Ribulose
bisphosphate
carboxylase
NADPH H+
NADP+
DHAP
Triose
Isomerase
Glyceraldehyde3-Phosphate
Dehydrogenase
G3P
ADP
ATP
Fructose-6Phosphate
Ribulose 5-phosphate
Aldolase
H2O
Fructose 1,6
bisphosphatase
Glucose
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb2/part1/dark.htm
Fructose-1,6-bisPhosphate
Solar Energy links Photosynthesis and

Energy Metabolism
H2O+N2+CO2
CO2
O2
CO2
CHO
Fats
Protein
CHO
Fats
Protein
ATP
Vegans
ATP
Monosaccharides (C6H12O6)
Glucose or dextrose (blood sugar)
Fructose (fruit sugar)
Monosaccharides
Galactose (milk sugar)
Oligosaccharides
The major oligosaccharide is the dissaccharide or double
sugar
Maltose= Glucose + Glucose
Glu
Glu
Lactose= Galactose + Glucose
Sucrose= Glucose + Fructose
Gal
Glu
Glu
Fruc
Polysaccharides
Plant polysaccharides
Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants
Amylose (20-30%)
Resistant Starch
Amylopectin (70-80%) similar to glycogen, less branching
Fiber occurs exclusively in plants

Cellulose
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0733521003001139
Daily Recommended Intake of Fiber

Under 50
38 g for men
25 g for women
Over 50
30 g for men
21 g for women
Ratio of 3:1 for water-insoluble to soluble fiber
Cholesterol in foods
Cholesterol is a sterol [not a fat] found only in animal products
that may be manufactured in the liver from carbohydrates, fatty
acids, and protein.
Cholesterol is not an essential nutrient, i.e., necessary in the diet
Isopentyl Pyrophosopate is a precursor for Vitamins A, E, and K
Cholesterol is a precursor for Vitamin D and mineralocortocoid,
glucocorticoid, and sex hormones.
Acetyl CoA + Acetyl CoA Acetoacetyl CoA + CoA
Acetoacetyl CoA + Acetyl CoA + H2O 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA + CoA + H+
3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA + 2NADPH + 2H+ Mevalonate + CoA + 2 NADP+
Hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductase is the ratelimiting enzyme in de novo cholesterol biosynthesis
Mevalonate Isopentyl Pyrophosphate
Geranyl Pyrophosphate Farnesyl Pyrophosphate
Squalene Cholesterol
http://sph.bu.edu/otlt/MPHCopyright 2010 Wolters
Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Modules/PH/PH709_A_Cellular_World/PH709_BuildingBlocks4.html
http://sph.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/PH/PH709_A_Cellular_World/PH709_BuildingBlocks4.html
Glycogen Synthesis
Glycogen Synthesis
Glucose
Hexokinase
ATP
ADP
Glucose-6Phosphate
Uridine Triphosphate
Phosphoglucomutase
Pyrophosphate UDP-Glucose
Glucose-1Phosphate
Glucose-1-phosphate uridylytransferase
http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/glycogen.php#synthesis
Next
Slide
Glycogen Synthesis, cont.
UDP-Glucose
Glycogen
Glycogen
Synthase
UDP
Glycogen+1 Glycosyl unit
16 bond
14 bonds
next slide
http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/glycogen.php#synthesis
Glycogen Structure
H
1 6 bonds
H
1 6 bonds
1 4 bonds
Glycogenin, an enzyme that accepts the first glucosyl on a tyrosine
residue on each of its two dimers, provides an anchor for de novo
glycogen synthesis
tyr
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glycosyl(n)glycogenin.svg
Glycogenin
Daily Recommendation of Carbohydrates

Sedentary 70kg person
300g or 40-50% of total calories
Physically active person
400-600g or 60% of total calories
Athlete
70% of total calories (8-10 gkg body mass-1)
Maximum capacity for glycogen storage is ~15gkg body
mass-1
~79.5%
~19.9%
~0.6%
Role of Carbohydrates
Energy source
Energy is derived from the breakdown of blood-borne
glucose
Muscle glycogen powers various forms of biologic work
including muscle contraction
Protein sparer
Adequate carbohydrate intake helps to preserve tissue
protein
Metabolic primer
The depletion of glycogen causes fat mobilization to
exceed fat oxidation
Can lead to ketosis
Fuel for the central nervous system
The brain almost exclusively uses blood glucose as its
fuel source
Hypoglycemia is the reduction of blood glucose to<45
mgdl-1 (2.5 mmoll-1)
Metabolism and Function

Digestion
Enzymatic
activity
Absorption
(primarily in
the small
intestine)
Diffusion
Facilitated
diffusion
Active
transport
Absorption
Osmosis: net movement of
water across a selectively
permeable membrane
dividing solutions of different
solute concentrations (from
Low [C] to High [C])
Diffusion: Random, uniform
and continuous movement
across a selectively
permeable membrane from
High [C] to Low [C]
Facilitated Diffusion:
Movement across a
selectively permeable
membrane from High [C] to
Low [C] by a carrier
molecule
Active Transport: Energy
requiring movement from
Low [C] to High [C]
Carbohydrate Dynamics in Exercise

Intensity and duration determine the fuel mixture during
exercise
High-intensity exercise
One hour of high-intensity exercise decreases liver
glycogen by 55%
Two hours almost depletes the liver and muscle
glycogen
Moderate and prolonged exercise
During low-intensity exercise fat serves as the
main energy substrate
Substrate utilization during incremental cycle exercise to exhaustion (32.5 Wmin-1 increments)
1.40
Non-protein RER (VCO2VO2)
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
3.5 8.5 13.5 18.5 23.5 28.5 33.5 38.5 43.5 48.5 53.5
VO2 (mlkg-1min-1)
1
2
3
4
5
VO2 (X) %VO2max RER (Y)

10.65
21
0.76
23.84
47
0.79
30.61
60
0.92
38.59
75
1.00
51.15
100
1.29
%CHO
19.2
29.9
74.1
100
100
%Fat
80.8
70.1
25.9
0
0
Thermal Equivalent of oxygen for nonprotein

RER including % carbohydrate (CHO) and fat
Non Protein RER Kcalliter O2-1 %CHO %Fat
0.707
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
4.686
4.69
4.702
4.714
4.727
4.739
4.751
4.764
4.776
4.788
4.801
4.813
4.825
4.836
4.85
4.862
4.875
4.887
4.899
4.911
4.924
4.936
4.948
4.961
4.973
4.985
4.998
5.01
5.022
5.035
5.047
0
1.1
4.76
8.4
12
15.6
19.2
22.8
26.3
29.9
33.4
36.9
40.3
43.8
47.2
50.7
54.1
57.5
60.8
64.2
67.5
70.8
74.1
77.4
80.7
84
87.2
90.4
93.6
96.8
100
100
98.9
95.2
91.6
88
84.4
80.8
77.2
73.7
70.1
66.6
63.1
59.7
56.2
52.8
49.3
45.9
42.5
39.2
35.8
32.5
29.2
25.9
22.6
19.3
16
12.8
9.6
6.4
3.2
0
CHO>Fat
~50%/50%
CHO/Fat
Fat>CHO
Dynamics of Nutrient Metabolism

CHO Loaded
Plasma [glucose] decreases
CHO Depleted in the glycogen depleted state
Plasma [free fatty acids]
CHO Depleted increase in the glycogen
depleted state
CHO Loaded
Increase in [ketones] (e.g., hydroxybutyrate) in the

glycogen depleted state
reflects greater use of
CHO Depleted ketogenic amino
CHO Loaded acids and fatty acids for
energy metabolism
CHO Loaded
Ability to maintain intensity of
exercise is adversely affected
CHO Depleted
in the glycogen depleted state
Copyright 2010 Wolters

KluwerTime
Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Exercise
Fatigue
Fatigue occurs when exercise continues to the point that
compromises liver and muscle glycogen.
Fatigue is commonly referred to as hitting the wall.
The rate of use of CHO by exercising muscle exceeds
hepatic glucose output by glycolysis or gluconeogenesis.
Fatigue is a complex phenomenon that is not completely
understood but likely includes central/peripheral nervous
and muscular perturbations in addition to energy substrate
availability.
Key points about carbohydrates

Carbohydrates consist of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon in a 2:1:1
respective ratio, e.g., glucose C6H12O6
Carbohydrates are produced by plants as part of photosynthesis
and exist as monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose);
disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose); and polymers (amylose,
amylopectin [plants], glycogen [animals]).
Glycogen is a polymer of glucose (glucosyl) units in linear ( 1-4)
and branch( 1-6) chains and is found in muscle (~80%) and liver
(~20%).
Glycolysis is the progressive pruning of glucosyl units from the
non-reducing end of the polymer for ATP synthesis (muscle) or for
blood glucose (liver). Glycogen phosphorylase, the enzyme
mobilizing a glucosyl unit from glycogen to undergo glycolysis, is
stimulated by the catecholamines epinepherine and norepinephrine
and the hormone glucagon. It is inhibited by the hormone insulin.
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose by the liver from
glucogenic amino acids, glycerol, lactate, and pyruvate.
Copyright
2010
Wolters Kluwer Health macronutrient
| Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
The
acceptable
distribution range for carbohydrates
Key points about carbohydrates, cont.

Carbohydrates is a major energy substrate, spares protein for
structure and regulatory purposes, primes fat oxidation, and is the
preferred and only substrate for the CNS and red blood cells,
respectively.
Carbohydrate is the only energy substrate for anaerobic glycolysis
and is the preferred fuel for prolonged, high intensity aerobic
exercise.
Adequate muscle [glycogen] is a prerequisite for optimal high
intensity aerobic exercise and requires adequate intake of dietary
carbohydrate (60-70% of total calories, 8-10 gkg body mass-1).
The price of glycogen depletion is a decrease in exercise intensity
dependent on training adaptations to mobilize and oxidize fat.
Lipids
Lipids are synthesized by plants and animals
There are three groups of lipids
Simple
Compound
Derived
Simple Lipids
Simple lipids consist primarily of triacylglycerols (TAG),
a.k.a., triglycerides
TAG is the major storage form of fat in adipocytes.
TAG contains one glycerol and three fatty acid chains
The longer the fatty acid chain in the TAG, the less
water-soluble the molecule.
Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids
When the carbon binds to the maximum number of
hydrogens
Occur primarily in animal products
Beef, lamb, pork, egg yolk
Unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond
betwwen adjacent carbons. As a result, unsaturated fatty
acids
Monounsaturated contains one double bond
Polyunsaturated contain two or more double bonds
Linolenic acid is an essential fatty acid
Types of fatty acids [R= (CH3)-CH2-CH2]

C-C
bonds
are all
single
One
double
C=C
bond; the
others are
single
Multiple
(more
than one)
C=C
bonds
H functional
groups are
on the same
side of the
C=C bond liquid
H functional
groups are
on opposite
sides of the
C=C bond solid
Double C=C
bond
between the
3rd and 4th C
from the end
(-3 or n-3)
Glycerol
Fatty Acid
Glycerol
Fatty Acid
Triglycerides (a.k.a., triacylglycerol): an ester of

glycerol (3 carbon alcohol) and three fatty acids
H
H-
H-
H-
3 H2 O
Essential Fatty Acids

Linoleic Acid -6 (C18 2C 9,12) Linolenic Acid -3 (C18 3C 9,12,15)
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
CH2
CH2
HC
CH2
HC
CH2
HC
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
HC
CH2
HC
CH2
CH2
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
Composition of Fatty Acids
Fat content in selected fats and oils
TAG Formation
Triacylglycerol Formation
Fatty Acyl CoA Ester
O
Lysophosphatidic acid
H
H
O
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CoA-S- C - C- C C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- CH3
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H
CoA-SH
Glycerol-3Phosphate
Acylglycerophosphate
H H H H H H
acyltransferase

O
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-C - C- C C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- CH3
Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase
H
CoA-SH
H
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H H H
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Diacylglycerol
OH
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H
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-C - C- C -C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- C- CH3
HO H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Phosphatidic acid
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OPO
Phosphatidic Acid PhosphohydrolaseO- P- O
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Copyright H2010
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Health
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TAG Formation
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Diacylglycerol
H H H H H H H
CoA-SH
Diacylglycerol acyltransferase
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Triacylglycerol
TAG Catabolism
Triacylglycerol Catabolism
Lipolysis of triacylglycerol occurs through
hormone-mediated (epinephrine) action of hormone
sensitive lipase in adipocytes (free fatty acids bound to
albumin)
capillary membrane-bound lipoprotein lipase (lipolysis
of triacylglycerol in chylomicrons and blood
lipoproteins) with uptake and reesterification of free
fatty acids and triacylglycerol synthesis by adjacent
tissue
Lipolysis prominently occurs during
Low-moderate intensity exercise
Low CHO intake or energy intake restriction
Cold stress
Glycogen depletion (with concurrent decline in
performance)
Trans Fatty Acids

Result of partial hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids
creating monounsaturated fatty acids in the trans
arrangement that are more closely packed (less steric
hinderance) and therefore are semi-solid or solid at room
temperature
Nutrition Facts labeling requires listing trans fat in grams
per serving
Health concerns
Increases amount of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
(LDL-C) similarly to naturally occurring saturated fatty
acids
Decreases amount of beneficial high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol (HDL-C) unlike naturally occuring saturated
fatty acids
Lipids in the Diet

A healthier American
lifestyle would
include:
-Less total fat in
the diet
-Less saturated
animal fat,
more mono- and
polyunsaturated fat
-More physical
activity
Compound Lipids
Phospholipids have four main functions
Interact with water and lipid to modulate fluid movement across

cell membranes
Maintain the structural integrity of the cell
Play important role in blood clotting
Provide structural integrity to the insulating sheath that

surrounds nerve fibers
Hydrophobic
(inner)
Hydrophilic
(outer)
Phosphate
Choline
Compound Lipids
Glycolipids
Fatty acids bound with carbohydrates and nitrogen
Lipoproteins
Packages produced in the small intestine and liver
including
Protein
Phospholipids
Triacylglycerol
Cholesterol
Cholesterol-fatty acid esters
Absorption of Dietary Lipids

Blood
Lymph
Epithelial Cell
Villi
Small Intestinal Lumen
Lipoproteins
Four types
Chylomicrons transport Vitamins A, D, E, and K
High-density lipoprotein (HDL-C) good cholesterol
Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL-C) transport TAGs
to muscle and adipose
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C) bad cholesterol
Composition of chylomicrons and lipoproteins
General Metabolic Pathways of Chylomicrons, HDL-C,

and VLDL-C/IDC-C/LDL-C
4
1
3
3
1
2
4
3
http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v40/n2/fig_tab/ng0208-129_F1.html
Derived Lipids
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a sterol.
Cholesterol exists only in animal tissue.
Diets high in cholesterol can cause increased risk of
coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis.
Tunica Adventitia
Tunica Media
Tunica Intima
http://www.heartsite.com/html/cad.html
Normal concentrations of serum [lipids]

Lipid
[Total
Cholesterol]
[HDLCholesterol]
Calculated
[LDLCholesterol]
[Triglycerides]
Calculated
[VLDLCholesterol]
Concentration Conversion Concentration Comments

(mgdl-1)
Factor () (mmoll-1)
or ()
110-200
0.0256
2.82-5.12 Lower is better
40-59
0.0256
50-99
0.0256
40-149
8-30
0.0113
0.0256
[Total
4.4
Cholesterol]
[HDLCholesterol]
NA
1.024-1.51 Higher is better

1.28-2.53
Lower is
better,
Calculated as
[Total] - [HDLC] - ([TG] 5)
0.45-1.68 Lower is better
0.205-0.768 Lower is
better,
Calculated as
([TG] 5)
NA
Lower is better
National Cholesterol Education

Guidelines: Fasting levels in mgdl-1
Total cholesterol
HDL-cholesterol
Less than 200:

Desirable
200-239: Borderline high
240: High
LDL-cholesterol
- Less than 40: Low

- 60 or above:
Protective
Triglycerides
- Less than 150:
Normal
Less than 100:

Optimal
100-129: Near Optimal
- 200-499: High
130-159: Borderline high
- 500: Very high
160-189: High
190: Very high
- 151-199: Borderline high
Daily Recommended Lipid Intake

A diet that contains 20% of total calories from lipids
10% (ideally, 7%) from saturated fats
Replace high fat foods with fruits, vegetables, whole
grains, fish, poultry, and lean meat
More plant foods, leaner choices of meat and dairy
products
More mono- and polyunsaturated (plant) fats in place of
saturated (animal) fats
Adequate intake of -3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty
acids
Do not replace fats with refined carbohydrates
Reduce dietary cholesterol intake
Role of Lipids in the Body

Energy source and reserve
Carries large quantities of energy per unit weight
Fat storage has played a prominent role in the the
evolution and survival of homo sapiens.
Transports and stores easily
Provides a ready source of energy
Protein sparer
Protection of vital organs (Visceral)
Thermal insulation (Subcutaneous)
Advantageous in cold water/weather and high impact sports
Disadvantageous in thermoregulation during hyperthermic
exercise
Vitamin carrier (Vitamins A,D,E,K) and hunger suppressor
Potential fat energy in an 80 kg male with

estimated 15% fat; 56 kg female with
estimated 25% fat
Male
= 80 kg 0.15
= 12 kg adipose tissue
= 12,000 g fat9 kcalg-1
= 108,000 kcal adipose
fat + plasma and IM fat
Female
= 56 kg 0.25
= 14 kg adipose tissue
= 14,000 g fat9 kcalg-1
= 126,000 kcal adipose fat +
plasma and IM fat
Fat Dynamics in Exercise

Light to moderate exercise
Energy comes from fatty acids
Moderate intensity exercise
Energy comes from equal amounts of carbohydrate
and fat supply
High intensity exercise
Carbohydrates, primarily muscle glycogen is the
source of energy
Effect of prolonged submaximal exercise (2.36 lmin-1)

on Respiratory Quotient (RQ) and substrate utilization
RQ=
Steady-state at the mitochondria
100% Fat oxidation=0.7
100% Carbohydrate oxidation=1.00
> 0.7 - < 1.0 Fat/CHO mix
~78%
~22%
~80%
Declining steady-state
RQ=explained by
decreasing CHO utilization
and increasing FFA utilization
~18% due to decreased insulin
secretion and increased
glucagon secretion.
Substrate use during steady-state cycle ergometer

exercise at 25%, 65% and 85% of VO2max
kcalmin-1
6.3
15.4
21.0
Substrate
25% 65% 85%

VO2max VO2max VO2max
Muscle Glycogen
Muscle TAG
Plasma [FFA]
Plasma [Glucose]
Total
1.5
37.8 58.7
16.5 23.0
12.1
70.1 27.0
14.6
11.9 12.2
14.6
100.0 100.0 100.0
Effect of exercise intensity on steady-state substrate utilization (VO2max~5 lmin-1); Body Mass = 70 kg
Muscle Glycogen Muscle Triacylglycerol
Plasma [Glucose]
80.0
Percent substrate utilization
70.0
Plasma [FFA]
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
25% VO2max
65% VO2max
Exercise Intensity
85% VO2max
Substrate use during prolonged steady-state cycle

ergometer exercise
Declining availability
of muscle glycogen,
TAG and amino acids
Increased lipolysis,
mobilization and use
of plasma [FFA]
Declining availability
of plasma [glucose]
Fat oxidation in low- and high-intensity steadystate exercise. Rationale for weight loss.
% Contribution of CHO and fats to energy metabolism in selected low- and high-intensity exercise tasks
%CHO %Fat
90 on steady-state
% based
80
non-protein
RER
70
Caloriesmin-1 from catabolism of CHO and fats in selected low- and high-intensity exercise tasks
12
Cal CHO CAL Fat
10
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
8
6
Caloriesmin-1
4
2
Exercise Training Intensity
0
Low - Walking 4 mph High - Running 6 mph
Exercise Training Intensity
Intensi Mas Rel

VO2
ty
s
Stea
Grams
dy Callite
%
Abs
Calmi
% liter O 2
Stat
CH
-1
VO2
r O2
n-1
Fat 1 CHO
e
O
RER
0.537
1.14 0.84 4.85
5.5 47. 52.
2
8
0.964
Low 80 14.2
Walkin
g4
milesh
r-1
High-2010 80
2.85
0.94
4.97
Copyright
Wolters 35.7
Kluwer Health
| Lippincott
Williams
& Wilkins 14.2
80. 19.
Grams
liter Gra Gram Cal CAL
ms
CH
O2-1
s Fat
Fat
CHO
O
Fat
0.28 0.61 0.31 2.4 2.9
1
9
0.108 2.75 0.30 11 2.8
8
The Myth of The Fat Burning Zone

Although it is correct that the percentage of energy from fat oxidation
increases as exercise intensity decreases, one must be cautious when
interpreting exercise energy expenditure and substrate utilization
data.
If the goal of an athlete or individual is to oxidize as much fat and
spare as much glycogen as possible, then it is important to determine
the exercise intensity that elicits the appropriate metabolic response.
However, if the goal is weight loss, which is important to
many individuals today, then total energy expenditure is more
important than whether fat or carbohydrate is the dominant
substrate.
Although low-intensity exercise results in a higher percentage of fat
being oxidized for fuel, it also results in significantly fewer calories
being expended.
Training in the fat burning zone for weight loss is a myth. Fitness
professionals should prescribe exercise intensity based on their
clients current fitness levels and goals. The best recommendation for
most exercisers who want to achieve a healthy body weight and
improve their fitness is to exercise at the highest intensity
Effect of the trained state on substrate availability

and utilizationBetter fat burner with concurrent
conservation of glycogen
Lower (38% vs. 58%)

post-training rate of
intramuscular glycolysis
Greater (46% vs. 24%)
post-training use of
intramuscular TAG stores
Key points about lipids

Lipids, like carbohydrates, consist of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon,
but in a much higher hydrogen:oxygen ratio, e.g. stearic acid
C18H35O2
Simple lipids (a.k.a, triacylglycerol) consist of glycerol and three
fatty acids. Compound lipids (a.k.a., phospholipids) consist of lipids
combined with other compounds. Lipoproteins consist of protein,
cholesterol, cholesterol-fatty acid esters, phospholipids, and
triacylglycerol.
Saturated fatty acids are fully saturated with hydrogens along the
hydrocarbon chain, have single valent bonds between adjacent
carbon atoms, come primarily from the animal kingdom, and are
solids at room temperature. Trans-fat is the result of partial
reduction of the double bond in unsaturated fats in food processing
and are implicated in various chronic diseases such as CHD.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one (mono-) or more (poly-) double
valent bonds between adjacent carbons, have either a cis- or
trans- arrangement at the double bond, come primarily from the
plant kingdom, are liquid at room temperature, and are healthier
than saturated fats.
Key points about lipids, cont.

Cholesterol is a sterol that is a precursor to gonadal, corticosteroid
and mineralocortocoid hormones, bile, and fat soluble vitamins.
High saturated fat in the diet increases de novo cholesterol
formation and promotes atherosclerosis.
Recommended dietary intake of lipids is 30% of total calories
and 10% of total calories from saturated fat.
Fat (intramuscular TAG and free fatty acids [FFA]) are the
dominant energy substrate at rest and light/moderate intensity
exercise. FFA is an important energy substrate during prolonged
exercise.
Carbohydrate depletion results in a decline in exercise intensity
during prolonged aerobic exercise depending on the training
adaptations that promote fat mobilization and oxidation.
Aerobic training increases the ability to mobilize, transport,
translocate and oxidize long-chain fatty acids.
Enhanced fat oxidation allows the trained individual to use fat at
greater exercise intensities, thus delaying glycogen depletion.
General structure of amino acids

Common to
all amino acids
Common to
all amino acids
Unique to
each amino acid
Common to
all amino acids
Common to
all amino acids
Proteins
Amino acids are the building blocks
Peptide bonds link together amino acids
Dipeptide is two amino acids joined together
Tripeptide is three amino acids joined together
Polypeptide is 50 to more than a 1000 amino acids
OH
Threonine
Thr-Val
|
H
Valine
Thr-Val
H2O
OH
H2O
Threonine
H Valine
Formation of peptides and protein

Secondary Protein Structure
-helix consists of a polypeptide backbone following a
helical path with 3.6 amino acid residues per turn of
the helix with the R moieties protruding outward.
pleated sheets consists of protein strands interacting

laterally via hydrogen bonds between the carbonyl
oxygen and the amino hydrogen atoms. The N-termini
of both strands may be at the same or opposite ends.
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/protein.htm
Formation of peptides and protein

Tertiary protein structure: three dimensional folding of a
protein due to interactions (hydrogen, van der Waals, ionic,
disulfide bonding) between amino acids located near or far
apart in the primary structure
Quaternary protein structure: association of two or more
identical or different polypeptide chains to form a complex
stabilized by weak interactions between residues exposed
on surfaces polypeptides within the complex.
The active site on enzymes may involve amino acid residues
from different chains. The function of a protein (e.g., active
site on an enzyme, troponin/tropomyison in muscle
contraction) generally involves conformational shifts in
polypeptides in the quaternary structure.
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/protein.htm
Essential Amino Acids

Amino acids that the body cannot synthesize
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine
Histidine
Essential Amino Acids

Histidine
Isoleucine
Lysine
Leucine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan
Threonine
Valine
Protein Sources
Complete proteins contain all of the essential amino acids
Eggs, milk, fish, and poultry
Incomplete proteins lack one or more of the essential
amino acids
Vegetables such as lentils, dry beans and peas, nuts,
and cereals
Vegans must combine plant protein sources
(complimentary proteins)
An essential amino acid that is in limited supply in a

particular food is a limiting amino acid
Legumes (Methionine)
Grains (Lysine)
Corn tortillas (enchiladas) with refried beans
Essential and nonessential amino acids

Two main classes of
amino acids
Essential
(indispensable)
amino acids which
must be obtained
from foods in the
diet
Nonessential
(dispensable)
amino acids which
may be formed in
the body
**
**May be synthesized at an inadequate rate during times of stress so more

is needed in the diet
Example Food Label

% Protein
= 3 g 4 kcalg-1 100 kcal
= 10.9 %
Protein sources in the typical American diet
Daily Recommended Protein Intake

Normal protein requirements are
0.8 1.0 g proteinkg body mass-1
Acceptable macronutrient distribution range = 10-35% of

total caloric intake
This range provides the opportunity for all individuals from

the most sedentary to the most ardent bodybuilder/weight
lifter to ingest adequate protein in a normal diet
Stress, disease, and injury increase protein requirements
Many (but not all) experts and organizations recognize that

training to promote lean tissue growth may require 1.4-1.8 g
proteinkg body mass-1
Excessive protein intake can have harmful side effects like

strained liver and kidney function
Increases urea formation from amino acid deamination
Digestion and absorption of protein

Stomach: HCl + pepsinogen
Pepsin. Enzymatic hydrolysis
of protein to polypeptides and
peptides
Small Intestine (Duodenum):
Trypsin and chymotrypsin.
Pancreatic proteases,
continued enzymatic
hydrolysis of peptides to
individual amino acids
+ H2O
Absorption by the villi of the small

intestinal epithelial cells through to
the blood.
Digestion and absorption of protein
Role of Protein in the Body

Protein makes up 12-15% of body mass
Major sources of body protein
Blood plasma (albumin, globulin)
Incorporation of nitrogen into NAD+, FAD, porphyrin
hemoglobin ring, catecholamine formation, and
serotonin formation
Connective tissue (collagen)
Enzymes (globular protein)
Receptors
Peptide hormones
Muscle (actin, myosin, troponin/tropomyosin)
Blood clotting (thrombin, fibrin, fibrinogen)
Protein Metabolism
Process of deamination (nitrogen removal) forms urea
which leaves body as urine
Remaining carbon skeletons from deamination follow one of
three diverse biochemical routes
Gluconeogenesis (glucogenic amino acids)
Energy source (glucogenic/ketogenic amino acids)
Fatty acid synthesis from acetyl CoA
Excessive protein catabolism promotes fluid loss
Nitrogen Balance
NB = Dietary N Intake Urinary N excretion Fecal N
excretion Sweat N excretion
Occurs when nitrogen intake equals nitrogen excretion
Positive nitrogen balance (protein used for structure)
Growing children
During pregnancy
Recovery from illness
During resistance exercise training
Negative nitrogen balance (protein catabolism for
energy)
Diabetes
Fever
Burns
Dieting
Growth
Steroid use
Transaminase Reaction
-ketoglutarate
Alanine
Amino Acid
Keto Acid
Alanine
Transaminase
Keto Acid
Amino Acid
Pyruvate
Glutamate
Oxidative catabolic fate of hydrocarbon skeletons of amino acids

Phenylalanine
(G/K),
Tyrosine (G/K),
Lysine (K)
Alanine (G),
Threonine (G),
Glycine (G),
Serine (G),
Cysteine (G)
Leucine (K),
Tryptophan (K)
Acetoacetyl
CoA
Aspartate (G),
Asparagine (G)
Phenylalanine
(G/K), Tyrosine
(G/K)
Isoleucine (G),
Methionine (G),
Valine (G)
http://www.xamplified.com/krebs-cycle/
Copyright
2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Glutamate
(G)
Arginine (G),
Histidine (G),
Glutamine (G),
Proline (G)
Effect of exercise and recovery on protein

degradation and synthesis
Synthesis
Exercise Group >
Control Group
Degradation
Exercise Group <
Control Group
Protein sparing effect of carbohydrates
Alanine-Glucose Cycle
Cori Cycle and Gluconeogenesis

Alanine
NAD+
Lactate
-ketoglutarate
Alanine
Transaminase
NADH H+
Lactate
Dehydrogemase
Pyruvate
Glutamate
Alanine From Muscle to Liver;

deamination to pyruvateGluconeogenesis from carbon
skeletons of glucogenic amino acids
From Muscle to
Liver-Cori Cycle
Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate
Aldolase
Pyruvate Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone

3-P
+ ATP
Pyruvate
Carboxylase
ADP+PO3
H2O
Triose
Isomerase
2-
Oxaloacetate
Phosphoenolpyruvate
Carboxykinase
2GTP+CO2 PO3
GDP
Phosphoenolpyruvate
ADP
Enolase
H2O
Physphate
ATP
PO32-
Fructose-6phosphate
NAD+
Glyceraldehyde 3-P
Dehydrogenase
NADH H+
Phosphoglucose
Isomerase
1,3bisphosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate
Kinase
Phosphoglycerate
Mutase
Fructose 1,6
bisphosphatase
Glucose-6phosphate
H2O
Glucose 6
Phosphatase
PO32-
Glucose
2-Phosphoglycerate
3-Phosphoglycerate
Key points about protein

In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, protein contains
nitrogen, sufer, iron, and phosphorous
The basic protein unit is the amino acid. Amino acids are the
alphabet for a diverse number of proteins with different
structured and functions. Proteins are arranged in a primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures.
Humans lack the metabolic pathways to synthesize nine
essential amino acids. The remainder can be synthesized by the
human body.
Complete (a.k.a. high quality) proteins contain all essential
amino acids. Complete proteins are found in the animal
kingdom.
Sufficient protein can be obtained from plant sources by
combining complimentary proteins.
The liver synthesizes new glucose from amino acids deamination
(carbon skeletons) in a pathway known as gluconeogenesis.
The RDA for the normal adult is ~0.83 g kgbody mass-1.
Key points about protein, cont.

Although experts disagree on the need for additional dietary
protein above the normal RDA by resistance and endurance
athletes during intense training, many recommend ~1.2-1.8 g
kgbody mass-1.
Glycogen depletion accelerates protein catabolism during
exercise. Adequate carbohydrate intake spares protein for
structure and regulatory functions.
Branch-chain amino acids can be metabolized in muscle and
play a role in energy metabolism during exercise.
Protein Supplements in Weight Gain and

Intense Training Needed or Not?
Caloric Intake for a 70 kg (154 lb) 18 yo male to gain 1 lbweek -1
Energy Expenditure
kcal
Energy needed to maintain 70 kg=679+(15.3kg) Est REE
1750
Resistance training=200 kcalsession-1 4 sessionswk-17 d
114
Aerobic Training=300 kcalsession-1 4 sessionswk-17 d
171
Muscle Tissue Growth = 3500 kcallb-17 days
500
Thermic Effect of Food=(7.5%CHO)+(25%Pro)+(2.5%Fat)
247
Total Energy Intake to meet Energy Expenditure
2783
Carbohydrate Calories 60% (AMDR = 45-65%)
Fat Calories 25%
(AMDR = 20-35%)
Protein Calories 15%
(AMDR = 10-35%)
Carbohydrates (g)
Fats (g)
Protein (g) [includes ~1 gkg-1 (normal needs) + ~14 g
(new
muscle
growth)
+& ~20
g (post-exercise repair)]
Copyright
2010
Wolters Kluwer Health
| Lippincott Williams
Wilkins
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Chapter 1

Carbohydrates, Lipids, and

Copyright 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

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Nutrients for Health and Performance

Main Energy Food;

Energy Source, Tissue

Micronutrients (metabolic regulators/coenzymes)

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Photosynthesis An Endergonic Process

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Photosynthesis is the conversion of solar energy to

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CO2 3-Phosphoglycerate ATP ADP

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Solar Energy links Photosynthesis and

Fructose (fruit sugar)

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Lactose= Galactose + Glucose

Sucrose= Glucose + Fructose

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Fiber occurs exclusively in plants

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Daily Recommended Intake of Fiber

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Glycogen Synthesis, cont.

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Daily Recommendation of Carbohydrates

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Metabolism and Function

Carbohydrate Dynamics in Exercise

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VO2 (X) %VO2max RER (Y)

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Thermal Equivalent of oxygen for nonprotein

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Dynamics of Nutrient Metabolism

Increase in [ketones] (e.g., hydroxybutyrate) in the

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Key points about carbohydrates

Key points about carbohydrates, cont.

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Types of fatty acids [R= (CH3)-CH2-CH2]

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Triglycerides (a.k.a., triacylglycerol): an ester of

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Essential Fatty Acids

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Composition of Fatty Acids

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Fat content in selected fats and oils

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