The Restless

Earth
Year 11 revision

Key terms
Key term

Definition

Asthenosphere The upper part of the Earths mantle, where

the rocks are more fluid.
Collision plate
boundary

A tectonic margin at which two continental

plates come together (collide).

Conservative
Where two tectonic plates slide past each
plate boundary other.
Constructive
Tectonic plate margin where rising magma adds
plate boundary new material to the diverging plates.
Destructive
Tectonic plate margins where oceanic plate is
plate boundary subducted.
Convection
currents

Circulating movements of magma in the mantle

caused by heat from the core.

Key terms
Key term

Definition

Core

The central part of the Earth, consisting of a

solid inner core and a more fluid outer core, and
mostly composed of iron and nickel.
The removal of people from an area, generally in
an attempt to avoid a threatened disaster (or
escape from one that has happened).
Planning that takes into consideration the long
term (i.e. over 5 years).
The part of the crust dominated by denser
basaltic rocks. (Under oceans)
The part of the crust dominated by less dense
granitic rocks. (Under continents)

Evacuation

Long-term
planning
Oceanic crust
Continental
crust

Key terms
Key term

Definition

Tectonic
hazards

Threats posed by earthquakes, volcanoes and

other events triggered by crustal processes.

Plate margin

The boundary between two tectonic plates.

Prediction

Forecasting future changes.

Primary
impacts
Secondary
impacts
Response

Impacts caused directly by the

volcano/earthquake.
Impacts caused indirectly by the
volcano/earthquake, for example a knock on
effect e.g. Fires caused by broken gas pipes.
The way and which people react to a situation.

Short-term
emergency
relief

Help and aid provided to an area to prevent

immediate loss of life because of shortages of
basics, such as water, food and shelter.

Key terms
Key term

Definition

Focus

The point inside the earth where an earthquake

starts.

Epicenter

The point on the lands surface, directly above

the focus.
Seismic waves Waves of energy that radiate out from an
earthquake.
Magnitude
The size of an earthquake, measured by the
Richter Scale.

Key facts: Structure of the Earth

Key facts: The crust

Oceanic Crust

On land
Thicker
(30-65km)

Underneath
oceans/seas
Thinner
12km)

Continental
Crust

LIGHT Granitic
rock

(8-

(rich in Si, Al)

HEAVY Basaltic
rock
(rich in Si, Mg)
Mantle

Key facts: Tectonic plates

Key facts: Constructive plate boundary

Magma rises between
the plates, forming
volcanoes

North American
plate

Plates are pulled apart

by the convection
currents in the mantle
below

Eurasian
Plate

e.g. The mid-Atlantic Ridge (Eurasian and North

American plates moving apart)

Key facts: Destructive plate boundary

e.g. Nazca is
subducting
under South
American
plate.

Heavier oceanic
crust gets pushed
under the
continental plate

Lower mantle

The rock jolts and

grinds, causing
earthquakes

The area where the

oceanic plate sinks
below the
continental plate is
called the
SUBDUCTION ZONE

The movement heats

up the rock and
melts it. The molten
rock forces its way
up through the crust
to form a volcano.

Key facts: Conservative plate boundary

e.g. San Andreaas Fault in California, USA.
(North American and Pacific plates sliding past
each other)

Plates slide
past each
other. Parts
of the plates
get stuck and
then lurch
free causing
earthquakes.

No rock is pushed down or melted and no gaps occur

between the plates therefore there are no volcanoes.

Key facts: Collision plate boundary

The rock jolts and
grinds, causing
earthquakes

Two continental crusts

move towards each other

The plates neither

sink or
are destroyed so
they buckle
upwards forming
mountains

e.g. The Himalayas (Nepal).

Formed as the Indian and
Eurasian continental plates
push into each other

Key facts: Hazards at plate margins

Asia

North
America

Europe

Africa

Australasia

South
America

Key:
Volcano
Earthquake

Key facts: Convection currents

Circulating movements of magma

in the mantle (convection currents)
caused by heat from the core

Case studies!

Volcano Case Study 1:

Type: Composite volcano
Name: Mt St. Helens, USA

Volcano Case Study 1:

Type

Composite volcano

Name

Mt St. Helens

Location

Shape

Washington State, USA. On the plate boundary

between the Juan de Fuca plate and North
American plate.
Layers of lava and ash are deposited by eruptions.
The lava is....
...mostly andesitic, which typically cools and
hardens before spreading far due to high
viscosity (thick like honey!), leading to...
...a steep-sided volcano.

Explosivity/
pyroclastic
flows

Highly explosive with lots of boulders and debris.

Nue ardente (hot ash and gas), Lahars (mudflows
of ash and water).

Formation
Lava type

Volcano Case Study 1:

57 fatalities, 200 houses, 27

bridges, 15 miles of railway and 185
miles of roads were destroyed
Ash cloud reached 80,000ft in 15
minutes, circled the earth in 15 days
The eruption removed 13% of the
volcanos rock, making it 390m
shorter
Thousands of Elk, Deer and Salmon
were killed and crops were
destroyed

Major problems with sewerage

disposal and water systems
Roads closed due to low
visibility from the ash
Some airports closed for two
weeks
Fine ash getting into electrical
systems caused blackouts
5 further eruptions between
May and October 1980

Volcano Case Study 2:

Type: Composite/Fissure volcano
Name: Mt Nyiragongo.

Volcano Case Study 2:

Type

Composite/Fissure volcano

Name

Mt Nyiragongo

Location

Democratic Republic of Congo (Africa)

Formation

Layers of lava have erupted from the crater

and fissures. The lava...

Lava type

...has an extremely low silica content (the lava

is mafic) and so flows very fast (can reach
100km/h), meaning...

Shape

...the volcano has very steep sides as the lava

flows away so quickly

Explosivity/
pyroclastic
flows

Low explosivity but fast-moving lava poses

great danger. CO2 gas released. Ash clouds
occur.

Volcano Case Study 2:

Homes were destroyed by ash and

lava
100 people died
Lava filled roads making it difficult
for emergency services to move
around
Lava covered 15% of Goma city, and
destroyed 30% of the city

400,000 people evacuated

Cholera spread because of poor
sanitation
One month after the eruption,
350,000 people were dependant
on aid
People lost their businesses and
jobs
After the eruption, a large
number of earthquakes were
felt around Goma and Gisenyi

Volcano Case Study 3:

Type: Shield volcano
Name: Mauna Loa, Hawaii.

Volcano Case Study 3:

Type

Shield volcano

Name

Mauna Loa

Location

Hawaii (on the Hawaii Hotspot)

Formation

Mauna Loa was created as the Pacific

tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian
hotspot in the mantle. Fluid lava flows
out slowly from the volcano because...
...the lava is mostly basaltic, silica-poor,
and very fluid. This creates...
...a low and flat shape

Lava type
Shape
Explosivity/
pyroclastic flows

Low, non-explosive.

Volcano Case Study 3:

Potential impact to the city of Hilo,

though lava from the 1984 eruption
did not impact the city
In the 1950 eruption, lava reached
the sea within 4 hours of the
eruption and destroyed a village

There has only been one

recorded fatality from
eruptions of Mauna Loa

Earthquakes

Earthquake Case Study 1: San Francisco

Name: San Francisco, USA
(MEDC)
Date: 17th October, 1989
Why:

California sits near

the San Andreas
fault

The Pacific and

North American
plates slide past each
other

The fault slipped

several metres

San
Andrea
s Fault

Earthquake Case Study 1: San Francisco

Earthquake Case Study 1:

63 fatalities, 3,757 injuries and

12,000 homeless
Upper deck of Freeway collapsed
onto lower deck, causing 42
fatalities
1.4 million people without power
following the earthquake, restored
to most the same day

Burst gas mains leading to

multiple fires
Soil liquefaction causing major
property damage
Landslides and ground ruptures
1.4 million people without power
following the earthquake

Earthquake Case Study 2:

Name: El Salvador, Central
America (LEDC)
Date: 13th January and 13th
February, 2001
Facts:
Smallest country in Central
America with less people
than London.
Very seismically active
area, at the junction of
three tectonic plates
What happened?:
Two major earthquakes
within 1 month, plus
thousands of aftershocks

Earthquake Case Study 2:

Earthquake Case Study 2:

13th January earthquake:

844 fatalities, 4,723 injured,
108,226 houses destroyed
Many of the fatalities and much of
the damage was caused by landslides
13th February earthquake:
315 fatalities, 3,399 injured, 41,302
houses destroyed

More than 2,500 aftershocks,

causing additional damage
More than 500 landslides
Clean water and sanitation
became major issues
Major disruption to electricity
supplies
Damage to the telephone
system and the control tower
at the airport delayed incoming
relief from abroad

Impacts of earthquakes
Factor

Why this affects the impact of an earthquake?

Distance from the

epicentre

The effects of an earthquake are more severe at its centre.

Size of quake

The higher on the Richter scale, the more severe the earthquake
is.

Level of development
(MEDC or LEDC)

MEDCs are more likely to have the resources and technology for
monitoring, prediction and response.

Population density
(rural or urban area)

The more densely populated an area, the more likely there are to
be deaths and casualties.

Communication

Accessibility for rescue teams.

Time of day

Influences whether people are in their homes, at work or

travelling. A severe earthquake at rush hour in a densely populated
urban area could have devastating effects.

The time of year and

climate

Influences survival rates and the rate at which disease can spread.

Preparing for earthquakes and volcanoes

1. Monitoring seismic waves
2. Earthquake proof buildings
3. Grab bags containing essential items
e.g. Tinned food, bottled water, blanket
4. Training emergency services
5. Evacuation plans
6. Early warning systems
Aims:
a)Minimise loss of life
b)Minimise disruption of critical services
c)Minimise damage

Preparing for earthquakes and volcanoes

MEDC building design:
Bolting buildings to foundations and
providing support walls (shear walls).
These are made from concrete and have
steel rods embedded inside to help
strengthen.
Walls reinforced and supported by
adding diagonal steel beams
(cross bracing)
Base isolators act like shock absorbers
between building and foundations. Help
absorb some of sideways motion.
Deep foundations for skyscrapers
Gas and water lines specially reinforced
with flexible joints to prevent breaking

Preparing for earthquakes and volcanoes

LEDC building design:
Strengthening new buildings by:
- Removal of mud overlay on roof
- Add diagonal bracing to frame

LEDC building design:

Strengthening old buildings by:
- Use cement/sand mortar and
shaped stones in construction.
- Limit thickness of mud overlay
to 200mm
- Install knee-braces to
reinforce the vertical/horizontal

(often timber as steel too expensive)

- install through-stones. Needs

training of local artisans (new skills)
- strengthening of wall corners,
using wire mesh and cement
overlay (although mesh not often
available in rural areas)

- install ring beam (band of concrete)

at roof level
- Pointing of exterior walls with

Long and short-term responses to

tectonic hazards
Short-term response

Long-term response

Emergency care

Damage proof buildings

Foreign/national aid

Education/training

Prepare emergency kits for

future quakes/eruptions
Evacuation procedures in
place

Permanent relocation
Evacuation plans and
websites to inform citizens

Video revision:
1. Continental drift
2. So why do the plates move?
3. Structure of the Earth 1
4. Structure of the Earth 2
5. Why do volcanoes & earthquakes happen?
6. Volcano formation
7. Subduction
8. Shield volcano
9. Mt St Helens
10.Nyiragongo film

Past GCSE questions: A

1.

Describe one way a region affected by earthquakes can prepare for

this hazard. (2 marks)

2.

Using an example(s), describe the effects of earthquakes on people

and property. (4 marks)

3.

Suggest one reason why the number of deaths varies between

earthquakes. (2 marks)

4.

Give two reasons why developing countries are very vulnerable to

earthquake damage (2 marks)

5.

Give two reasons why some earthquakes are more powerful than
others (2 marks)

6.

For either an earthquake or a volcanic eruption you have studied,

describe the immediate responses (straight after the earthquake)
in managing its impact. (4 marks)

Past GCSE questions: B

7.

Describe how hazard resistant design can help reduce the impact
of earthquakes (4 marks)

8.

Explain how building design can help reduce the impact of

earthquakes (4 marks)

9.

Explain how earthquakes happen on destructive plate margins (4

marks)

10. Explain how volcanoes are formed on either constructive or

destructive plate boundaries. (4 marks).
11. For a named volcanic event, compare the primary and secondary
impacts (6 marks)

Past GCSE questions: C

12. Describe two hazards volcanic eruptions can create for people
(4 marks)
13. Explain how shield volcanoes are formed. (4 marks)
14. Describe the features of a shield volcano (2 marks)
15. Examine why the characteristics of volcanoes vary (6 marks)
16. Outline one difference between oceanic and continental crust
(2 marks)
17. Describe two differences between oceanic and continental crusts
(4 marks)
18. Draw an accurate labelled diagram of a destructive plate margin
(4 marks)

Good luck!