Leadership

Leadership
The ability to inspire confidence and
support among the people who are
needed to achieve organizational goals
May be considered a long-term
relationship, or partnership, between
leaders and group members

Initiating Structure
Organizing and defining relationships in
the group by engaging in such activities as
assigning specific tasks, specifying
procedures to be followed, scheduling
work, and clarifying expectations for team
members
Also referred to as production emphasis,
task orientation, and task motivation

Consideration
The degree to which the leader creates an
environment of emotional support,
warmth, friendliness, and trust
Involves being friendly and approachable,
looking out for the personal welfare of the
group, keeping the group abreast of new
developments, and doing small favors for
the group

Task-Related Leadership
Attitudes and Behaviors

Adaptability to the situation

Direction setting
High performance standards
Risk taking and a bias for action
Hands-on guidance and feedback
Stability of performance
Ability to ask tough questions

Relationship-Oriented
Attitudes and Behaviors

Aligning and mobilizing people

Concert building
Creating inspiration and visibility
Satisfying higher-level needs
Giving emotional support and
encouragement
Promoting principles and values
Being a servant leader

Leadership Style
The relatively consistent pattern of
behavior that characterizes a leader
Often based on the dimensions of initiating
structure and consideration

Participative Leadership
Participative leaders share decision
making with group members
Three subtypes:
Consultative leaders confer with group
members
Consensus leaders strive for consensus
among group members
Democratic leaders confer final authority to
the group

Autocratic Leadership
Autocratic leaders retain most of the
authority for themselves
Autocratic leaders make decisions
confidently, assume that group members
will comply, and are not overly concerned
with group members attitudes toward a
decision

Trait theories
Trait theories attempt to isolate the
personal or other characteristics which
distinguish leaders from non leaders.

Trait Theories of Leadership

Ambition
and Energy

Desire
to Lead

Honesty
and Integrity

SelfConfidence

Intelligence

Job-Relevant
Knowledge

But the trait approach has limitations.

First, there are no universal traits that predict in all
situations.
Second, traits predict behavior more in weak
situations than in strong situations.
Finally, traits do a better job at predicting the
appearance of leadership than in actually distinguishing
between effective and ineffective leaders.

These limitations have led researchers to look in

other directions.
Leadership research from the late 1940s through
the mid-1960s emphasized the preferred
behavioral styles that leaders demonstrated.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral studies suggest that we could train people

to be leaders.

behavioral theories differ in terms of their

underlying assumptions.

Trait theories assumption

Leadership is basically inborn:
Behavioral approach assumption
We can teach leadership.
We can design programs to implant behavioral
patterns.
If training worked, we could have an infinite supply
of effective leaders.

 The most important studies were

The Michigan and Ohio studies,
Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid

The Michigan and Ohio Studies.

In the 1940s two independent studies were carried out
by the University of Michigan, and Ohio State University.
The Results were similar. Michigan found leadership
behaviour varied from Job centred to employee centred,
Ohio called the end points Initiating Structure behaviour
and Consideration behaviour.
Managers that were job centred were very directive,
watch subordinates closely,and use formal
communication patterns.
Employee centred managers create group cohesion, job
satisfaction and a friendly working atmosphere.

 Blake and Mouton devised a two

dimensional grid representing Managerial
style (based on the Ohio and Michigan
end points).
This really shows a framework for
management styles and not new evidence
of what makes a leader?

The Managerial Grid

9

(1,9)

(9,9)

Concern for People

8
7
6
5

(5,5)

4
3
2
1

(9,1)

(1,1)

Concern for Production

 9,1 high result level, low relationship

level - this leadership style is seen as
task accomplishment oriented, and it
embodies the entrepreneurial spirit; this
is the assertive style.
1,9 low result level, high relationship
level - leaders support their people, the
group, not the individuals are the key to an
organization; this is the preoccupied

 9,9 high result level, high relationship

level - for this kind of leader, the main goal
is to promote conditions that include
creativity, ethics, and high efficiency from
teams acting in a synergic manner; this
final one is the motivating style.

 1,1 low result level, low relationship level it is a passive approach, characteristic for
somebody who resigns in front of failure; this is
the passive style.
5,5 medium result level, high relationship
level - this medium level means that satisfying
solutions have been found through balancing
actions or through compromise; this is the
administrative style.

Contingency Approach
Leaders are most effective when they
make their behavior contingent upon
situational forces, including group member
characteristics

Fiedlers Contingency Theory

The best style of leadership is determined
by situational factors
Leadership style may be relationshipmotivated or task-motivated
Leadership style is relatively enduring and
difficult to change
Leaders should be matched to situations
according to their style

Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)

The LPC scale measures the degree to
which a leader describes favorably or
unfavorably an employee with whom he or
she could work least well
A relationship-motivated leader tends to
describe their LPC in favorable terms
A task-motivated leader tends to describe
their LPC in an unfavorable manner

Measuring the Situation

Leadership situations are classified as high,
moderate, or low control
More controllable situations are viewed as
more favorable for the leader
Control is determined by three dimensions:
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power

Summary of Findings From

Feidlers Contingency Theory

Path-Goal Theory
Specifies what the leader must do to
achieve high productivity and morale in a
given situation
Based on expectancy theory
The manager should choose a leadership
style that takes into account the
characteristics of group members and of
the task

The Path-Goal Theory of

Leadership

Situational Contingencies
1. Personal Characteristics of group
members
Ability, skills, needs, and motivations

2. The work environment

Degree of task structure, formal authority
system, work group itself (e.g. quality of
relationships and educational level of
members)

Situational Theory
Hersey and Blanchards extension
of the Leadership Grid focusing on
the characteristics of followers as
the important element of the
situation, and consequently, of
determining effective leader
behavior

Ex. 3.4 Hersey and Blanchards

Situational Theory of Leadership
Follower Characteristics

Appropriate Leader Style

Low readiness level

Telling (high task-low relationship)

Moderate readiness level

Selling (high task-high relationship)

High readiness level

Participating (low task-high rel.)

Very high readiness level

Delegating (low task-low relationship)

Can be tailored to individual followers

Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model

Leaders concern with task
Low

High

High

Leaders
concern
with
relationship
Low

Mature
Employees

Willing/Able Unwilling/able Willing/unable Unwilling/unable

Immature
Employees

Hersey-Blanchard Situational
Leadership Model
Follower Readiness
High

Moderate

Low

R4

R3

R2

R1

Able and
willing or
confident

Able but
unwilling
or
insecure

Unable but
willing or
confident

Unable
and
unwilling
or
insecure

Follower
Directed

Leader
Directed

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

The leader-member exchange (LMX) theory argues that

because of time pressures, leaders establish a special
relationship with a small group of their followers.

These individuals make up the in-groupthey are trusted, get

a disproportionate amount of the leaders attention, and are
more likely to receive special privileges.
How the leader chooses who falls into each category is
unclear.
The leader does the choosing on the basis of the followers
characteristics.

Research to test LMX theory has been generally

supportive.
The theory and research surrounding it provide substantive
evidence that leaders do differentiate among followers and
that these disparities are far from random.

Leader-Member Exchange Model

Personal
Compatibility
and/or
Subordinate
Competence
Trust

Leader

High
Interactions

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

A
B
C

In-Group

Formal
Relations

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

D
E
F

Out-Group

Leader-Participation Model

In 1973, Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed a

leader-participation model.
Recognizing that task structures have varying demands for
routine and nonroutine activities, these researchers argued
that leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task
structure.

The model was normativeit provided a sequential set of

rules that should be followed in determining the form and
amount of participation in decision making, as determined by
different types of situations.
The model was a decision tree incorporating seven
contingencies and five leadership styles.

More recent work by Vroom and Arthur Jago revised this

model.

Figure 15.6 Alternative Decision-Making

Styles in the Vroom/Yetton/Jago Model

Figure 15.7 The Vroom/Jago Decision Tree for Dealing

with a Group Problem When Time Is Limited

Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leadership theory says that followers make

attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when
they observe certain behaviors.
The best documented has isolated five such characteristicsthey
have a vision, are willing to take risks to achieve that vision, are
sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs,
and exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary.
How do charismatic leaders actually influence followers? The
evidence suggests a four-step process.

It begins by the leader articulating an appealing vision.

The leader then communicates high performance expectations
and expresses confidence that followers can attain them.
Next, the leader conveys, through words and actions, a new set
of values and, by his or her behavior, sets an example for
followers to imitate.

 Finally, the charismatic leader makes self-sacrifices and

engages in unconventional behavior to demonstrate
courage and convictions about the vision.

Charismatic leadership may not always be needed

to achieve high levels of employee performance.
Charisma appears to be most appropriate when the
followers task has an ideological component or when the
environment involves a high degree of stress and
uncertainty.

Transformational Leadership

Differentiating transformational leaders from transactional leaders

Most of the leadership theories presented in this chapter have
concerned transactional leaders.

Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own

self-interests for the good of the organization and are capable of
having a profound and extraordinary effect on their followers.

These kinds of leaders guide or motivate their followers in the

direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.

Transactional and transformational leadership shouldnt be viewed

as opposing approaches.

Transformational leadership is built on top of transactional leadership.

Transformational leadership is more than charisma.
The transformational leader will attempt to instill in followers the ability
to question not only established views but eventually those
established by the leader.

Contemporary Issues in Leadership

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

Recent studies indicate that EImore than I.Q.,

expertise, or any other single factoris the best predictor
of who will emerge as a leader.

I.Q. and technical skills are threshold capabilities.

Theyre necessary but not sufficient requirements for
leadership.
Its the possession of the five components of emotional
intelligenceself-awareness, self-management, selfmotivation, empathy, and social skillsthat allows an
individual to become a star performer.

EI has shown to be positively related to job performance

at all levels.

It is especially relevant in jobs that demand a high degree of

social interaction.

 Great leaders demonstrate their EI by exhibiting all five of its

key components:
Self-awarenessexhibited by self-confidence, realistic selfassessment, and a self-deprecating sense of humor.
Self-managementexhibited by trustworthiness and integrity,
comfort with ambiguity, and openness to change.
Self-motivationexhibited by a strong drive to achieve,
optimism, and high organizational commitment.
Empathyexhibited by expertise in building and retaining
talent, cross-cultural sensitivity, and service to clients and
customers.
Social skillsexhibited by the ability to lead change,
persuasiveness, and expertise in building and leading teams.

Trust and Leadership

What Is Trust?

Trust is a positive expectation that another will notthrough

words, actions, or decisionsact opportunistically.

Five key dimensions of trust

Integrity refers to honesty and truthfulness.

Competence encompasses an individuals technical and
interpersonal knowledge and skills. Does the person know
what he or she is talking about?
Consistency relates to an individuals reliability, predictability,
and good judgment in handling situations.
Loyalty is the willingness to protect and save face for another
person.
The final dimension of trust is openness. Can you rely on the
person to give you the full truth?

 Trust as the Foundation of Leadership

A primary attribute associated with leadership
Honesty and integrity were found to be among the six traits found
to be consistently associated with leadership.
Trust and trustworthiness modulate the leaders access to
knowledge and cooperation.

When followers trust a leader, they are willing to be vulnerable

to the leaders actionsconfident that their rights and interests
will not be abused.
Honesty consistently ranks at the top of most peoples list of
characteristics they admire in their leaders.
Now, more than ever, managerial and leadership effectiveness
depends on the ability to gain the trust of followers.
In times of change and instability, people turn to personal
relationships for guidance, and the quality of these relationships
is largely determined by level of trust.

 Three Types of Trust

Deterrence-based trust
The most fragileone violation or inconsistency can
destroy the relationship
Based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated
It will work only to the degree that punishment is
possible, consequences are clear, and the punishment
is actually imposed if the trust is violated.
Most new relationships begin on a base of deterrence.

 Knowledge-based trust
Most organizational relationships are rooted in knowledgebased trust.
Relies on information rather than deterrence
Knowledge of the other party and predictability of his or her
behavior replaces the contracts, penalties, and legal
arrangements more typical of deterrence-based trust.
It develops over time, largely as a function of experience that
builds confidence of trustworthiness and predictability.
Predictability enhances trusteven if the other is predictably
untrustworthy.
This trust is not necessarily broken by inconsistent behavior; if
you believe, you can adequately explain or understand
anothers apparent violation.
In an organizational context, most manager-employee
relationships are knowledge-based.

 Identification-based trust
The highest level of trustachieved when there is an emotional
connection between the parties
It allows one party to act as an agent for the other in interpersonal
transactions.
Trust exists because the parties understand each others intentions and
appreciate the others wants and desires.
You see identification-based trust occasionally in organizations among
people who have worked together for long periods of time and have a
depth of experience that allows them to know each other inside and
out.
This is also the type of trust that managers ideally seek in teams.

Realistically, in the current work world, most large corporations have

broken the bonds of identification trust.

Its likely to have been replaced with knowledge-based

trust.

MENTORING

Mentor: an individual who systematically

develops another persons abilities
through intensive tutoring, coaching, and
guidance.

MENTORING

Career Functions Performed by Mentors

Sponsorship
Exposure-and-visibility
Coaching
Protection
Challenging assignments

MENTORING

Psychosocial Functions Performed by Mentors

Role modeling
Acceptance and confirmation
Counseling
Friendship

MENTORING
For Discussion:
1. Have you ever had a mentor? What were the
positives and negatives of the relationship?
2. Which of the above functions are most valuable
for today's new managers?