Stainless

Steels.
1

A Cornucopia of Stainless
Steels.
Stainless

steels are
iron-based alloys.
There are many
available grades of
stainless steel, with
widely varying
compositions.
Some natural
questions arise:

Why

are there so
many?
Why is a steel with
17% chromium a
ferritic steel, but one
with 18% chromium
(and 8% nickel) an
austenitic steel?
What

are the
differences between
them all?

Why is Stainless Steel

Stainless?
Corrosion Rate (mm/year)

Stainless steels are stainless because of passivation.

0.2

0.1

5
% Chromium

10

Stainless Steels.
Passivity.
Passivity

is due to a
self-repairing oxide
film.
A

compact, continuous
film requires ~ 11wt%
chromium.
Passivity increases with
chromium content up
to ~17wt% chromium.
Most stainless steels
contain 17-18wt%
chromium.

Corrosion

resistance depends
on maintenance of
the passive film.
This is optimised
for different
environments by
alloying with other
elements.
e.g.

Ni, Mo, N, Cu....

The Stainless Steel Family.

Stainless

families.

steels can be divided into five

Ferritic.
Austenitic.
Martensitic.
Martensitic-Austenitic.
Ferritic-Austenitic.

These

families are based on the crystal

phases of iron.

The Crystal Phases of Iron.

Metals are crystalline

Iron

can be stable as
three important
crystal phases.
Ferrite.
Austenite.
Martensite.

Their

relative
stability depends
on temperature
and chemical
composition.

Ferrite.
Ferrite

has a body-centred cubic crystal structure.

Austenite.
Austenite

has a face centred cubic

crystal structure.

Martensite.
Martensite

has a body centred cubic

structure, although this can be
distorted by carbon.

Phase Transformations in
Steels.
on
Diffusi
Ferrite
Austenite

Diffus
io

Pure iron is stable as:

austenite above
914C
ferrite below 914C.
martensite or ferrite
below 550C
These
transformation
mechanisms
compete.

nless
The

Martensite

austenite-ferrite
phase transformation
occurs by diffusional
rearrangement of
atoms.
The austenitemartensite phase
transformation occurs
by non-diffusional
rearrangement of
atoms.

Alloying in Steels.
Different

alloying
elements can :
increase

austenite
stability to lower
temperatures.
encourage
martensite
formation by
slowing down the
ferrite
transformation.

Temp.
Austenite
Effect of
Alloying

Ferrite
Unstable
Austenite

Martensite
Time

Alloying in Stainless Steels.

Stainless

steels are alloyed to

control both microstructure
and corrosion resistance.
Alloying elements can be
austenite or ferrite stabilisers.
The stable phase or phases
depends on the balance of
alloying elements.
The microstructure can be predicted using a
Schaeffler-Delong diagram.
Heat treatment may also affect the microstructure.

Nickel Equivalent

The Schaeffler-Delong
Diagram.
904
Austenitic
Martensitic-Austenitic
316

304 Ferritic-Austenitic 2507

2205

2304
410
Martensitic
430
Ferritic
Chromium Equivalent
Chromium Equivalent = %Cr + 1.5%Si + %Mo
Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30(%C + %N) + 0.5(%Mn + %Cu + %Co)

Why Are These Phases

Important?
Ferrite,

austenite and martensite have

different properties due to their different
crystal structures.

For

example:

ferromagnetism.
thermal

expansion.
thermal conductivity.
Strength, Ductility and Toughness
resistivity.
mechanical properties.

Stainless Steels.
Strength and Ductility.
Martensitic

Stress (MPa)

1000

Martensitic-Austenitic

750

Ferritic-Austenitic

500
Ferritic

250
0

10

20

30
40
Strain (%)

Austenitic

50

60

Strength and Ductility.

Strength

can be increased by:

refinement

of the microstructure.
work hardening (cold work).
precipitation.
alloying.
Strengthening

ductility.

generally reduces

Stainless Steels.
Toughness.

Toughness

depends on
temperature.

Impact Energy

Austenitic

Ferritic-Austenitic

Ferritic

Martensitic

-200

-100
0
Temperature (C)

100

Stainless Steels.
Toughness.
The

body centred crystal structure fails by

brittle cleavage at low temperatures.
Austenite is not brittle at low temperatures.
Brittle

cleavage is encouraged by high

strength.
Strengthening generally reduces toughness.
microstructure refinement increases both
strength and toughness.

Precipitation.
Stainless steels are unstable at high temperatures.
Carbides

and Nitrides (550C - 800C).

all phases.
Cool quickly,
reduces corrosion resistance and
reduce C & N or
toughness.
stabilise with Ti

Intermetallics

(700C - 900C).
ferrite and austenite (>17% Cr & Mo).
reduces corrosion resistance and
Cool quickly
toughness.

475C

Embrittlement (350C - 550C). Avoid use at

these
ferrite and martensite (>15% Cr).
temperatures
reduces toughness.
occurs relatively slowly.

Applications of Stainless
Steels.
Alloying
Microstructure

Corrosion
Resistance

Cost

Applications

Mechanical
Properties

Ferritic Stainless Steel.

Typically: 15-30%Cr, < 0.1%C, < 1%Mo

Ferritic Stainless Steels.

Good

Corrosion Resistance.

including

Good

chloride environments.

Oxidation Resistance.

Moderate

Toughness.

Moderate

Strength. Toughness and weldability are

Moderate

Cost.

Moderate

Formability.

Poor

improved by reducing C and N.

to Moderate Weldability.

Ferritic Stainless Steel

Applications.
Pipes,

heat exchange tubes, valves

and tanks.

Food,

chemical and paper industries.

Chloride
High

environments.

temperature sulphur
environments.

Martensitic Stainless Steel.

Typically: 12-17%Cr, 0.1-1%C

Martensitic Stainless Steels.

High

Strength.
Moderate Corrosion Resistance.
Moderate Oxidation Resistance.
Moderate Toughness.
Moderate Cost.
Martensite-Austenite steels
have higher toughness,
Moderate Formability. improved weldability and
higher cost.
Poor to Moderate Weldability.
Increasing the carbon content increases strength
but reduces toughness, formability and weldability.

Martensitic Stainless Steel

Applications.
Martensitic

Stainless Steels

0.1%C
chemical

discs.

plant, turbine blades, compressors and

0.3%C
cutlery,

0.6%C

gears, bearings, needle valves.

Martensitic-Austenitic
blades.
Stainless Steels have
similar applications
1%C
demanding higher
surgical instruments, high temperature bearings.
toughness.
razor

Austenitic Stainless Steel.

Typically: 18%Cr, >8%Ni, <0.1%C

Austenitic Stainless Steels.

Excellent
except

Corrosion Resistance.

chloride environments

Good

Oxidation Resistance.
High Toughness.
Low Carbon or
addition of Titanium
Low to Moderate Strength.to avoid sensitisation
Good Formability.
Good Weldability.
Molybdenum improves
corrosion resistance, but
High Cost.
requires higher Nickel to
stabilise austenite.

Austenitic Stainless Steel

Applications.
Very

widely used.

pipes,

heat exchangers, tanks for food,

chemical, pharmaceutical, offshore and
paper industries.

Higher

alloy steels used in more

aggressive environments.
Good creep resistance and
oxidation resistance
at high temperatures.

Good toughness at
cryogenic temperatures.
Non-magnetic.

Duplex Stainless Steels.

Ferrite

Austenite

Ferritic-Austenitic (Duplex)
Stainless Steels.
Typically: 22%Cr, 5%Ni, 0.03%C, 0.08%N

Excellent

Corrosion Resistance.

including

High

Strength approximately
chloride environments

Toughness.
Moderate to High Strength.
Good Formability.
Good Weldability.
High Cost.

twice that of austenitic

steels with comparable
corrosion resistance

Higher alloy, high

nitrogen grades are
being introduced.

Duplex Stainless Steel

Applications.

High

strength substitute for austenitic

steels.
high

strength reduces weight and cost.

Piping,

tanks, vessels in chloride

environments.
chemical,

oil, gas, paper industries.

Structural

components requiring
corrosion fatigue resistance.
suction

rollers in paper industry.

seawater pumps and impellers in offshore
industry.

Stainless Steels
Summary
Stainless Steels are quite simple (in principle!)

Mechanical properties
depend on
microstructure.
Microstructure depends
on alloying.
Can I have a strong,
tough, corrosion
resistant and cheap
stainless steel?
Maybe - it depends
on the environment.

Why

are there so
many steels?
Due

to optimisation
of corrosion
resistance for
particular
environments while
maintaining the
desired
microstructure.