CHAPTER 7 :

HOMEOSTASIS

HOMEOSTASIS
The biological definition of homeostasis is the tendency
of an organism or cell to regulate its internal
environment and maintain equilibrium.
Ability of organism to maintain a relative stable internal
environment, involving continuous monitoring and
regulating multiple parameters and coordinating the
responses to minimize the disturbance to organism.
Every organ in the body contributes to homeostasis
A complex set of chemical, thermal, and neural factors
interact in complex ways, both helping and hindering the
body while it works to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostatic control
Stimulus produces a change to a variable (the factor being
regulated).
Receptor detects the change. The receptor monitors the
environment and responds to change (stimuli).
Input information travels along the (afferent) pathway to the
control centre. The control centre determines the appropriate
response and course of action.
Output information sent from the control centre travels down
the (efferent) pathway to the effector.
Response a response from the effector balances out the original
stimulus to maintain homeostasis.

TYPES OF
FEEDBACK
MECHANISM

Negative feedback mechanism

Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms
These mechanisms change the variable back to its original state or ideal value.
Since this tends to keep things constant, it allows the maintenance of
homeostasis.
The control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin is another good example of a
negative feedback mechanism. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body
sense a change . In turn, the control centre (pancreas) secretes insulin into the
blood effectively lowering blood sugar levels. Once blood sugar levels reach
homeostasis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin.

EXAMPLE OF NEGATIVES FEEDBACK

Positive feedback mechanism

A positive feedback mechanism is the exact opposite of a
negative feedback mechanism.
A mechanism that promotes the process to spend up where a
response is to amplify the change in the variable.
Positive feedback is less common in naturally occurring
systems than negative feedback.
Good example of a positive feedback mechanism is blood
clotting. Once a vessel is damaged, platelets start to cling to
the injured site and release chemicals that attract more
platelets. The platelets continue to pile up and release
chemicals until a clot is formed.

EXAMPLE OF POSITIVES FEEDBACK

Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the process that allows the human body to
maintain its core internal temperature.
The ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within
certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is
very different.
Helps keep body temperature within optimum range that enables
cells to function most effectively.

How Does Thermoregulation

Work?

When your temperature increases, your body activates a system to promote heat loss. This
returns body temperature back to normal.
This process has three steps:
1)
Sensors in your central nervous system (CNS) send messages to your hypothalamus,
telling it your internal temperature is increasing.
2)

Your hypothalamus, which controls thermoregulation, receives the message.

3)

Your hypothalamus activates one of several mechanisms to decrease your temperature.

The same process occurs when your body senses your temperature is falling too low.

Types of Thermoregulation

When your brain receives a temperature warning from your body, it

sends signals to various organs and body systems, which try to
slow or increase heat production.
If your body needs to cool down, these include:
Sweating: Sweating is one of the first methods your body will use
to control your temperature. Sweat cools your skin as it evaporates.
This helps lower your internal temperature.
Vasodilatation: Your CNS may instruct the capillaries under the
surface of your skin to dilate, or open. Vasodilatation, or enlarged
capillaries, increases blood flow at the skin surface. This lets your

If your body needs to warm up, these include:

Stopping sweating: Your nervous system can lower sweat production to help maintain the heat your
body generates.
Vasoconstriction: Your CNS may signal your capillaries to constrict, or become narrower. This
decreases blood flow under the skin and reduces heat loss.
Thermogenesis: Your bodys muscles, organs, and brain can produce heat when your internal
temperature is sinking. This process is called thermogenesis. Muscles are especially effective at
thermogenesis. They can produce large quantities of heat quickly. Shivering is one way muscles
generate heat.
Hormonal thermogenesis: Your body can activate the thyroid gland if you are getting too cold. This
releases hormones that increase your metabolism. An increased metabolism increases the energy your
body creates and the amount of heat your body is able to make.

Thermoregulation in human

In cold conditions
Sweat stops being produced.
Piloerection
Arterioles shrink, thereby rerouting blood away from the skin and towards
the warmer core of the body.
Muscles receive messages from the hypothalamus to cause shivering. This
increases heat production as respiration is an exothermic reaction in
muscle cells. Shivering is more effective than exercise at producing heat
because the animal remains still. This means that less heat is lost to the
environment via convection.

In hot conditions
Sweat glands under the skin secrete sweat
The hairs on the skin lie flat, preventing heat from being trapped by the
layer of still air between the hairs.
muscle in arteriole walls allowing increased blood flow through the
superficial capillaries in the skin.

COUNTERCURRENT HEAT EXCHANGE

the mechanism by which some property of a fluid, such as heat or a chemical
substance, is transferred from one fluid across a semi-permeable membrane or
thermally conductive material to another fluid flowing in the opposite direction.
The general requirements for counter current exchange are that two fluids flow
in close proximity to each other and that the fluids flow in opposite directions.
The purpose of counter current exchange is to maintain a concentration
gradient between the two fluids in order to maximize movement from one fluid
to the other. The opposite of counter current exchange occurs in concurrent
exchange when two fluids flow in the same direction.

A whale's tongue uses this system. As blood flows

to the tip of the tongue, it heats up blood returning

Parallel pipes that flow in the same direction are

called concurrent, and are not as efficient as
countercurrent flow in retaining energy.

Gray whales take in many galloons on cold seawater into their mouths at a time,
and one could imagine this would be a large heat sink, given the specific heat of
water.

If the gray whale were to lose a significant amount of heat to the water, it
wouldn't be able to eat enough food to produce the energy required to hear its
body.

It was therefore essential for its survival to have a system to conserve energy in
the form of heat. Through natural selection, a countercurrent heat exchange
system was established in the gray whale's tongue.

As warm blood flows to the tongue through an artery, it gives off heat to the
blood returning to the whale through its veins. This is a significant way to save
heat, as the heat would otherwise be lost to the water the whale swallows.

SWEATING

Sweat is the watery fluid produced and excreted by the sweat gland .

Sweat glands; They are simple tubular glands found in almost every part of the skin( There are two to
four million sweat glands distributed all over our bodies).
Sweating

control and stimulation :

Sweating is controlled from a centre in the hypothalamus where thermosensitive neurons are located .
Sweat glands are stimulated in response to;
1.
high temperature .
2.
exercise
3.
hormones
4.
emotional stress (emotionally induced sweating is restricted to palms ,soles , armpits and forehead
while temperature induced sweating causes sweating throughout the body).

 There are two types of sweat glands :

a) The ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS : They are located over the
entire body surface except for the lips and part of the external
genial, and are innervated by sympathetic nerves. The tiny ducts
of the eccrine glands pass through the dermis and epidermis
open up and empty directly on to the skin . They are active since
birth producing an odorless, clear fluid which is sweat and is
mainly a mixture of water and salts .

b) The Apocrine sweat glands :

They are limited in their distribution to axillary, pubic, and
perianal region , and armpits (less than eccrine glands).
They are larger in size compared to the eccrine sweat glands.
They become active with the onset of puberty.
They are associated with hair follicles and open up at the hair
follicles.
They produce a thick fluid, which in contact with bacteria on the
skins surface, produces a characteristic potent "body odor".

Function of sweat
Thermoregulation which is The principle function of sweat.
Sweating allows the body to rid itself of excessive heat production, through
the evaporation of water which brings about cooling of the body.
Sweat accounts for a large proportion of the water that remains on the skin,
forming part of the hydrolipid film which is the indispensable protective
covering keeping the skin in good condition and, allowing it to perform its
many essential functions.
It plays a minor excretory role ( some drugs and toxins are excreted in sweat).

Piloerection
Piloerection (cutis anserina) refers to a reaction of the sympathetic
nervous system that causes certain muscles to contract and hair follicles to
protrude outwards from the skin.
Commonly called goosebumps or gooseflesh, it is a physiological
response to cold air and intense emotions, especially fear. It is most
common to see goosebumps on the forearms, though they can also appear
on the legs, buttocks, chest, and neck on some people.

Piloerection is a defense mechanism in many mammals to threats or

cold weather, but there are no known benefits of this response in humans.

Shivering
When the core body temperature drops, the shivering
reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis.
Skeletal

muscles

around

begin

to

shake

in

small

movements, creating warmth by expending energy.

Shivering can also be a response to a fever, as a person
may feel cold.

Definition

Vasolidation

Widening of blood vessels.

Relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller
arterioles.
The process is the opposite of vasoconstriction.

Process
When blood vessels dilute, the flow of blood is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance .
Therefore, dilation of arterial blood vessel decrease blood pressure.

Function
To increase blood flow in the body to tissues that need it most.

Definition

Vasoconstriction

The narrowing of the blood vessels .

Contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, in particular the large arteries
and small arterioles.

Process

When blood vessels constrict, the flow of blood is restricted or decrease .

Retaining body heat or increasing vascular resistance and make skin turn paler
because less blood reaches the surface, reducing the radiation of heat.

Function

As medicine use to raise blood pressure.

Important in staunching hemmorhage and acute blood loss.