Chemical Industries

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

Chemical Industries
Fertilizers Production
Soap and Detergents
Cement Production

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

Anatomy ofDraKhaled
chemical
process
M Zohdy

Cement is..
Hydraulic Binder
Solidify and gain compressive strength after mixing with
water

It binds gravel and sand

to form Artificial Rock
Sold Material

Concrete
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

Processing system

Preheater

Rotary Kiln
Cooler

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

Cement Chemical Composition (Portland

Cement)
Cement Compound

Weight
Percentage

Chemical Formula

Tricalcium silicate

60-70 %

Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2(C3S)

Dicalcium silicate

10-20 %

Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2(C2S)

Tricalcium aluminate

5-10 %

Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO .Al2O3(C3A)

Tetracalcium
aluminoferrite

3-8 %

Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 (C4AF)

Gypsum

5%

CaSO4.2H2O
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

Zone 1: 0 - 35 min, 800 1100 oC

Decarbonation. Formation of 3CaOAl2O3 above 900 oC. Melting of fluxing
compounds Al2O3 and Fe2O3.
heat
CaCO3
CaO + CO2
Zone 2: 35 - 40 min, 1100 1300 oC
Exothermic reactions and the formation of secondary silicate phases as
follows:
heat
2CaO + SiO2
2CaOSiO2
Zone 3: 40 - 50 min, 1300 - 1450 oC
Sintering and reaction within the melt to form ternary silicates and
tetracalcium aluminoferrates:
heat + time
2CaOSiO2 + CaO
3CaOSiO2
heat + time
3CaOAl2O3 + CaO + Fe2O3
4CaOAl2O3.Fe2O3
Zone 4: 50 - 60 min, 1300 1000 oC
Cooling and crystallization of the various mineral phases formed in the kiln.
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

There are two main cement manufacturing

processes currently used in the world:
the dry process and the wet process.
the dry process:
The clay and limestone are crushed
separately until nothing bigger than a tennis
ball remains
minerals are then added to either the clay or
the limestone to ensure that the correct
amounts of aluminium, iron etc. are present
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

the wet process.

The clay is mixed to a paste in a wash mill
- a tank in which the clay is pulverized in
the presence of water
The slurry is then tested to ensure that it
contains the correct balance of minerals

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

 Cement production has several quite

serious environmental hazards associated
with it:
- dust
- CO2 emissions
- contaminated run-off water.
All cement works in Egypt have measures in
place to minimize these hazards.

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Uses of Portland Cement

Cement is produced in three main grades:
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC),
Rapid hardening cement and
Moderate-heat cement. is used for the construction of hydro-electric
dams, as the heat produced by ordinary cement creates uneven
expansion and hence cracking when such a large volume of concrete is
used.
Rapid-hardening cement is used in precast concrete, pipes and tiles. It
is finer ground so that it hydrates more quickly and has more gypsum
than other cements.
In addition, a few special cements are manufactured for larger projects
or export: these include sulphate resisting, fly ash blend, blast-furnace
slag.

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Soap and Detergents

Soap Manufacturing
The term "soap" refers to a particular type of detergent in which the
water-solubilized group is carboxylate and the positive ion is usually
sodium or potassium

Detergent Manufacturing
The term "synthetic detergent products" applies broadly to cleaning
and laundering compounds containing surface-active (surfactant)
compounds along with other ingredients
Liquid detergents were introduced that utilized sodium citrate and
sodium silicate. The liquids offered superior performance and
solubility at a slightly increased cost

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Process Descriptions
1. Soap
Soap was manufactured by an alkaline hydrolysis reaction
called saponification.
Soap was made in huge kettles into which fats, oils, and
caustic soda were piped and heated to a brisk boil. After
cooling for several days, salt was added, causing the mixture
to separate into two layers with the "neat" soap on top and
spent lye and water on the bottom.
The soap was pumped to a closed mixing tank called a
crutcher where builders, perfumes, and other ingredients were
added. Builders are alkaline compounds that improve the
cleaning performance of the soap. Finally, the soap was rolled
into flakes, cast or milled into bars, or spray-dried into soap
powder.
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Process Descriptions
2. Detergent

The manufacture of spray-dried detergent has 3 main processing steps:

(1) Slurry preparation.
(2) Spray drying.
(3) Granule handling.

The 3 major components of detergent are:

- Surfactants (to remove dirt and other unwanted materials),
- Builders (to treat the water to improve surfactant performance),
- Additives to improve cleaning performance.
Additives may include bleaches, bleach activators, antistatic agents, fabric softeners,
optical brighteners, anti-redeposition agents, and fillers.

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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 detergent slurry is produced by the sulfonation of either a

linear alkylate or a fatty acid, which is then neutralized
with a caustic solution containing sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).
spray drying tower, air heating and supply system, slurry
atomizing and pumping equipment, product cooling
equipment, and conveying equipment. Most towers
designed for detergent production are countercurrent,
with slurry introduced at the top and heated air
introduced at the bottom

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Fertilizers Production
A fertilizer is a material that furnishes one or
more of the chemical elements necessary for the
proper growth of plants
A fertilizer product is a material produced by
industrial processes with the specific purpose of
being used as a fertilizer.
Chemical elements that are essential for the
proper development and growth of plants are
typically referred to as plant nutrients
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Classification of Elements Essential for Plant Growth

Major elements
(macronutrients)

- (Available from air or water)

Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen

- Primary nutrients

Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium

- Secondary nutrients

Calcium
Magnesium
Sulfur

Minor elements
(micronutrients)

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

Boron
Chlorine
Copper
Iron
Manganese
Molybdenum
Zinc

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 Nitrate produced under the product name NP or NPK.

These products contain nitrogen in ammoniacal (NH 4) and nitrate (NO3) form,
phosphorus expressed as P 2O5, and normally also potassium expressed as
K2O.
The content of nutrients (N + P2O5 + K2O) will normally be between 40 and
50%. In addition the fertilizers may contain magnesium, boron, sulpher and
micro-nutrients
These compound fertilizers are made by one of the two following important
production routes: The nitric acid route or nitro-phosphate process.
The sulphuric acid route or mixed-acid process.
The two processes are based on different technologies, having different
investment costs, economic impact, energy consumptions, emission values
and process integration.

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Production Process Description

Basic Concept
The integrated Nitro-phosphate process which
produces compound fertilizers containing ammonium
nitrate, phosphate and potassium salts.
Ca5F(PO4)3 + 10HNO3
3H3PO4 + 5Ca(NO3)2 + HF
H3PO4 + HNO3 + Ca(NO3)2 + 4H2O
H3PO4 +
HNO3 + Ca(NO3)2.4H2O
Ca(NO3)2 + (NH4)2 CO3
CaCO3+ 2NH4NO3

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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1. Technologies of the Nitro-phosphate

Process
Ammonia plant
Nitric acid plant
Nitro-phosphoric acid unit

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Ammonia plant
Ammonia is of importance in the nitro-phosphate process
because: Liquid ammonia is used in the nitro-phosphoric acid
section for cooling
Gaseous ammonia is used for the neutralization of the
remaining acid.
The ammonia plant delivers carbon dioxide for the
conversion unit and thus reduces the CO2 emission from
the ammonia plant.

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Nitric acid plant

A nitric acid plant on site is not a prerequisite because nitric
acid can be bought and stored without problems but there
are important advantages from energy and environmental
points of view if it is included in the integrated process: The nitric acid plant provides surplus steam for
concentration purposes in the other units and thus saves
energy.
The nitric acid plant can also process waste waters leading
to a saving of expensive de-mineralized water and also
saving energy.
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Nitro-phosphoric acid unit

The production of this nitro-phosphoric acid
takes place in a special unit. In this unit natural
rock phosphate, containing 30-40% P2O5, is first
dissolved in about 60% HNO3. The reaction is
exothermic and raises the temperature of the
solution. The temperature is controlled at about
70C because of the high corrosion rate above
70-75C. The exothermic reaction leads to the
emission of off-gases containing NOx .
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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2. Compound fertilizer production unit

Neutralization
Particle formation
Conditioning

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Neutralization
The nitro-phosphoric acid solution with a
CaO/P2O5 ratio of 0.21-0.65 is neutralized
with gaseous ammonia to around pH 5 in
stainless steel reactors in different stages.
This reaction is very exothermic and raises
the temperature to around the boiling point
(125-145C). The reaction heat is normally
used for economic evaporation of the slurry
and cooling the slurry.
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Particle formation
Three types of processes are normally
used for the production of NPK fertilizers;

Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Conditioning
The commercial product from the drying
and screening is cooled in a fluidized bed,
a bulk flow heat exchanger or rotating
drum. Off-gases from these latter stages,
containing minor amounts of dust and
generally no ammonia, are de-dusted in
cyclones. Finally, the product is cooled and
coated before storage in order to minimize
the subsequent caking of the material.
Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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Dr Khaled M Zohdy

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