Courses Plan

1- Morphology (6 days)

Words, sentences and dictionaries

A word and its parts: roots, affixes and their shapes
A word and its forms: inflection
A word and its relatives: derivation
Compound words, blends and phrasal words
A word and its structure
Mid- Term Test
2- Syntax ( 8 days)
Sentence structure: Constituents, Functions
Sentence structure: Categories, The verb phrase
Adverbials and other matters, The verb group
More on noun phrases,
Sentences within sentences, WH- Clauses
Non-finite clauses
- Assessment
- Total marks =30% Mid-term (Morpho) +70% Final (Final: Syntax)

Reference Books
Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (2002). An
Introduction to English Morphology: Words
and their Structure. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press Ltd.
Burton-Roberts, N. (1997). Analysing
Sentences: An Introduction to English
Syntax (second edition). New York: Addison
Wesley Longman Ltd.
1. Booij, G. (2007). The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to
Linguistic Morphology (second edition). New York: Oxford
University Press.
2. Fromkin, V. et al. (2005). An Introduction to Language
(Australian edition). Melbourne: Nelson Thomson Learning
Pty Limited.
3. Jackson, H. (1982). Analyzing English: An Introduction to
Descriptive Linguistics (second edition). Oxford: Pergamon

Morphology: basic
notions

To know a word, is to know

spelling
pronunciation
definition
part of speech
history
non-standard/slang
whether the word is vulgar
whether the word is obsolete
examples

MORPHOLOGY: THE WORDS OF

LANGUAGE

morphe (Greek) = shape, form

-ology = "science of
The study of the internal structure of
words, and of the rules by which
words are formed.

MORPHEME
the smallest unit of linguistic meaning.
A single word may be composed of one or
more morphemes.
Example: un+system+atic+al+ly ( the
word unsystematically can be analyzed
into 5 separate morphemes)
A grammatical unit in which there is an
arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning
that cannot be further analyzed.
Every word in every language is composed
of one or more morphemes.

Morphemes >< Phonemes

Morpheme: meaning
Phoneme: distinctive feature
Ex: un-reason-able
talks

One morpheme
boy (one syllable)
desire, lady, water (two syllables)

crocodile (three syllables)

salamander (four syllables),

or more syllables

Two morphemes
boy + ish

desire + able

Three morphemes
boy + ish + ness

desire + able + ity

Four morphemes
gentle + man + li + ness

un + desire + able + ity

More than four

un + gentle + man + li + ness

anti + dis + establish + ment + ari +

an + ism

Free Morphemes
Morphemes which can be used as a
word on its own (without the need for
further elements, i.e. affixes)
Example: girl, system, desire,
hope, act, phone, happy..

Bound Morphemes
Morphemes which cannot occur on
its own as an independent (or
separate) word.
Affixes (prefix, suffix, infix and
circumfix) are all bound morphemes.

Root vs. Stem

Root

Stem

Non-affix lexical content

When a root morpheme is
morphemes that cannot be
combined with affix
analyzed into smaller parts
morphemes, it forms a
(ex.) cran (as in cranberry),
stem.
act, beauty, system, etc..
Other affixes can be added
Free Root Morpheme:

to a stem to form a more

run, bottle, phone, etc.
complex stem.
Bound Root Morpheme:

uncount, uncouth,
nonchalant, etc.

Root believe (verb)

Stembelieve + able (verb + suffix)
Word un + believe + able (prefix + verb +
suffix)

Root system (noun)

Stem system + atic (noun + suffix)

Stem un + system + atic (prefix + noun +

suffix)

Stem un + system + atic + al(prefix + noun +

suffix +
suffix)

Word un + system + atic + al + ly(prefix + noun

+ suffix +

Words, sentences and dictionaries

words are units of language which are

basic in two senses:
1. they have meanings that are
unpredictable and so must be listed in
dictionaries
2. they are the building-blocks out of
which phrases and sentences are formed.
(Carstairs-McCarthy, A. 2002. p.5)

Words as types and words as tokens

Mary goes to Edinburgh next week,
and she intends going to Washington
next month.
-> to E & to W: two performances of
the same tune -> distinct tokens of
one type
-> next w & next m: two copies of the
same book -> distinct tokens of one
type

Words with predictable meanings

Do any words have meanings that are
predictable?
Onomatopoeic words are not the same in all
languages (a cock-crow in German is kikeriki)
Some words have meanings that are
natural or predictable in this way is really
a leftover from childhood.
What kinds of word do have predictable
meanings?
-> any words that are composed of
independently identifiable parts, where the
meaning of the parts is sufficient to
determine the meaning of the whole word.

Which of the following words may not deserve to be regarded as

lexical
items, and so may not need to be listed in a dictionary of modern
English? Why?

punish punishing punishable

punishment

receive receptive receivable

reception

 Which of the following phrases (in

italics) may deserve to be regarded
as lexical items? Why?
1- a. They put the cat among the
hamsters.
b. They put the cat among the
pigeons.
2- a-Roger is a man who keeps his
promises.
b- Richard is a man of his word.

A word and its parts: roots, affixes and their shapes

morphemes and allomorphs, bound

and free
roots, affixes and combining forms
prefixes and suffixes.

What is an allomorph?

Definition:An allomorph is one of

two or more complementary morphs
which manifest a morpheme in its
different phonological or
morphological environments.
The allomorphs of a morpheme are
derived from phonological rules and any
morphophonemic rules that may apply to
that morpheme.

 Definition
An allomorph is an alternative
manifestation of a morpheme (a set of
meaningful linguistic units). Allomorphs
vary in shape or pronunciation according
to their conditions of use, but not as to
meaning.
Examples: In English, the negative prefix in
has several allomorphs:
In-capable
Il-logical
Im-probable
Ir-reverent

Identify the morphemes

1.replay, weaken, rainy,
keeper, manly, honest
2.dreamed, phonemic,
selective, friendship,
infamous

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

law
do
talk
delight
predict
year
Prefer, preferable, prefered,
preferential
8. soft
9. rotate
10.history

 Exercises p.27- Consider the following

words:
(a)tigers / speakers
(b)untimely / uniquely
(c) decorating / decentralising
(d) wholesome / gruesome
(e) consumed / consumption
(f ) leucocyte / erythrocyte

1. Divide them into morphemes, noting

any instances where you are unsure.
What differences are there between
the words in each pair?

2. Are there any morphemes here which

have two or more allomorphs?
3. Which of these morphemes are free and
which are bound? Are the bound morphemes
all affixes, or are some of them roots or
combining forms?
4. Do any problems arise here for the view
that morphemes are the smallest units of
language that can be associated with
meaning or the minimal units of meaning?

Word characteristics
unpredictable and so must be listed
in dictionaries
building-blocks for words and
phrases.
EX:
1- I keep tabs on all my expenditure.
2- Too many cooks spoil the broth.
3- A stitch in time saves nine.
4- Its no use crying over spilt milk.

MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
-> Morphological analysisrefers to the
analysis ofmorphologyin any of the many
fields to use the term.
EX: unreasonable
- un-: prefix, negative bound morpheme.
- reason: stem, free morp., verb
- able: suffix, bound morp., adj, ability to
do sth
- restrain -> rest rain / re strain?
- children -> child r en ?

DERIVATION &
INFLECTION
Inflection and derivation are the two
main processes of word formation.
They are two kinds of
morphosyntactic operation.

 perform-s -> inflection

perform-ed -> inflection
perform-> derivation
ance.

What is inflection?

Definition:
Inflection is variation in the form of a
word, typically by means of an affix,
that expresses a grammatical
contrast which is obligatory for the
stems word class in some given
grammatical context.

Examples:
pianist -> pianists (plural)
talk -> talks (third person , singular)
decide -> decided (simple past, pp)
give -> giving (present part.,
gerund)
green -> greener (comparative)
green -> greenest (superlative)
her -> hers (possessive)

What is derivation?

Definition:
Derivation is the formation of a new
word or inflectable stem from
another word or stem. It typically
occurs by the addition of an affix.
The derived word is often of a
different word class from the original.
It may thus take the inflectional
affixes of the new word class.

Examples

Kindness is derived from kind.

Joyful is derived from joy.
Amazement is derived from amaze.
Speaker is derived from speak.
National is derived from nation.

Comparison of inflection and derivation

Inflection

Lexical Do not change

category

Derivation
Often change

Location Tend to occur outside Tend to occur next to

derivational affixes.

the root

Type of Contribute syntactically

meaning conditioned information, such

as number, gender, or aspect.

Contribute lexical
meaning

Affixes
used

Occur with all or most

members of a class of
stems.

Are restricted to some,

but not all members of a
class of stems

Productivity May be used to coin

new words of the

same type.

Grounding

Create forms that are

fully-grounded and able
to be integrated into
discourse.

May eventually lose

their meaning and
usually cannot be
used to coin new
terms
Create forms that are
not necessarily fully
grounded and may
require inflectional
operations before they
can be integrated into
discourse

Morphological
operations

Words = roots + affixes =

morphological atoms =

morphemes = pieces that are no

further divisible into smaller ones.
EX: international = inter nation al
independence = in depend en ce
predictable = pre-dict - able

Practice
Identify the morphemes for each of the
following words, classify whether they are
derivation or inflection
1.antedate
2.portable
3.disagreement
4.readings
5.unloosened
6.ungentlemanly
7.misjudgement
8.Persian
9.Researchers
10. oxen

Un avoid able
un: bound / allomorph, derivational,
prefix, means without or not
avoid : free morpheme, verb
- able
: bound morpheme, derivational,
adjective forming suffix, means may/ ability

Plural noun
1. -um -> -a: datum-> data, bacterium -> bacteria
2. - -> -es: orange -> oranges
-s: pen
-> pens, books
3. -oo- -> -ee-: tooth -> teeth
4. -o -> es: potato -> potatoes
5. -fe -> -ves: wife -> wives, leaf -> leaves (proof ->
proofs)
6. -y -> ies: candy -> candies
7. -a- -> -e-: man -> men
8. -us -> -i: cactus -> cacti

small X: -let, -ette, -ie

e.g. droplet, booklet, cigarette, doggie
female X: -ess, -ine
e.g. waitress, princess, heroine
inhabitant of X: -er, -(i)an
e.g. Londoner, New Yorker, Texan,
Glaswegian
state of being an X: -ship, -hood
e.g.kingship, ladyship, motherhood,
priesthood
devotee of or expert on X: -ist, -ian
e.g. contortionist,, Marxist, logician,
historian

1. -y: rainy, sunny, muddy

2. -ly: friendly, childly, likely
3. -ous: famous, studious, obedious
4. -ish: selfish, childish, boyish
5. -al: natural, national
6. -ing: caring, saving
7. -ed: talked, obserbed
8. -ive: talkative, productive
9. -able: preferable, reasonable
10.-an: American, German
11.-less: hopeless, restless
12.-ful: delightful, careful
13.-ic: terrific, economic
14.-ent/ ant: different, independent, vacant, tolerant
15.-ory/ ary: compulsory, necessary, obligatory

Add prefixes

Re
repaint, rewrite
Dis
disagree, disbelieve
Prepredict, pretalk
Dedecrease, debug

Add suffixes
- al:
national, agricultural
arrival, refusal
- ly:
actively, regularly
friendly, manly
- er:
teacher, lawyer
speaker, ruler

Compound words, blends

and phrasal words
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Compounds versus phrases

Compound verbs
Compound adjectives
Compound nouns
Headed and headless compounds
Blends and acronyms
Compounds containing bound
combining forms
8. Phrasal words

Compounds versus phrases

Compounds
a greenhouse
blackboard
slkworm
(the) White House
toy factory

Phrases
a green house
black board
silk worm
white house
toy factory

Compounds & derived

words
Compounds: each of the constituents
is a form of a lexeme
EX: dairy man
Derived words: including affixes
EX: seller, distinction

Compound verbs
Verbs less formed by compounding
than verbs derived by affixation.
verbverb (VV): stir-fry, freeze-dry
nounverb (NV): hand-wash, aircondition, steam-clean
adjectiveverb (AV): dry-clean,
whitewash
prepositionverb (PV):
underestimate, outrun, overcook

Compound adjectives
-> right-headed compound adjectives:
nounadjective (NA): sky-high, coalblack, oil-rich
adjectiveadjective (AA): greygreen, squeaky-clean, red-hot
prepositionadjective (PA):
underfull, overactive, oversmooth

Compound nouns
verbnoun (VN): swearword,
drophammer, playtime
nounnoun (NN): hairnet, mosquito net,
butterfly net, hair restorer
adjectivenoun (AN): blackboard,
greenstone, faintheart
prepositionnoun (PN): in-group,
outpost, overcoat
(N-V-suffix): sign-writer, slum clearance,
crime prevention, wish-fulfilment

Headed and headless

compounds
Headed compounds:
a greenstone : a kind of stone
blackboard : a kind of board
Headless compounds:
a faintheart : someone who has a
faint heart
stickleback : a kind of fish with
spines on its back

Types
Endocentric compound: a type of compound
in which one member functions as the head
and the other as its modifier
EX: postman, milk deliver, taxi driver
Exocentric Compound: a term used to refer
to a particular type of compound that lacks a
head.
EX: white collar, pickpocket, killjoy
Copulative compounds:compounds which
have two semantic heads.
EX: bittersweet, sleepwalk

Blends and acronyms

Blending: words formed by combining,
mixing one part with another
EX: motor/ motorist + hotel -> motel,
cheese+ hamburger -> cheeseburger
Compounding: words formed by joining two
separate words
EX: fingerprint, taxidriver, sunflower
Acronymy: words formed from the beginning
segments
EX: United Nations Organization
->
UNO
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ->
NATO

Compounds containing bound

combining forms
anthrop(o): human
-(o)logy : science or study
-> anthropology
electr(o)- + ic -> electronic
aud- + (a)ible -> audible

Phrasal words
brother-in-law behaves as a word
brothers-in-law (plural, head =
brothers)

A word and its structure

1. Meaning and structure
2. Affixes as heads
3. More elaborate word forms: multiple
affixation, compounds within
compounds
4. Apparent mismatches between
meaning and structure

Meaning and structure

Meaning of word: predictable from
lexical items
EX: helpful = help (n) ful (a)
Compounds may have different
structure
EX: French history teacher =
(1) French teacher of history
(2) teacher of French history

Affixes as heads
greenhouse -> -house = head
teacher -> -er = head
helpful -> help / -ful = head
Prefixes rarely change the word class
(enlarge, enslave)
Suffixes change the word class
Prefixed words are right-headed

Lexeme formation
Words are divided into two kinds of
lexical classes: open & closed
Open: lexical words: verbs, nouns,
adjectives, adverbs
Closed: functional words:
determiners, conjunctions, pronouns,
articles, pre - & post-positions

Templates and
Idiosyncrasies
Lexical & functional
EX: It rains heavily.
morphological templates:
morphological form
Ex: actress, waitress -> -ess: noun,
human, female
semantic idiosyncrasy: semantic
feature
Ex: teacher, worker -> -er: person
doing an action

Multiple affixation,
Compounds within compounds
multiple affixation:
EX: unhelpfulness , helplessness.
(1) help (n) + -ful helpful (a)
un- + helpful unhelpful (a)
unhelpful + -ness unhelpfulness (n)
(2) help (n) + -less helpless (a)
helpless + -ness helplessness (n)

compounds within compounds:

EX: Obama - Putin encounters
window oven cleaner marketing

Apparent mismatches between

meaning and structure
nuclear physics
nuclear physicist
plastic surgeon : an expert in
cosmetic surgery
French historian
-> historian who is French
-> expert in French history (not
necessarily a French person)
open door policy wooden door
policy

Form
morphology + article = morphology
article
EX: house + boat =houseboat.
->The right-hand member is the
head of the compound,
determiningthe syntactic category
and meaning of the whole
EX: a houseboat = a kind of boat
a boathouse = a kind of house
-> The left-hand member is the
modifier.

Types
Endocentric compound: a type of
compound in which one member functions
as the head and the other as its modifier
EX: postman, milk deliver, taxi driver
Exocentric Compound: a term used to
refer to a particular type of compound that
lacks a head.
EX: white collar, pickpocket
Copulative compounds:compounds
which have two semantic heads.
EX: bittersweet, sleepwalk

Inflection
Inflection: grammatical words are the inflected
forms of thelexeme and the process of
constructing inflected forms
EX: write-> writes, written, writing, wrote
The meanings of the inflected form are
predictable(plural of noun, past tense of verb, or
whatever)
The shape ofinflected forms is generally
determined by affixation to the stem form of
thelexeme.
Inflections express grammatical or functional
categories

compounds and phrases

(Booij, G. p.82 retrieved from Levi
1978: 38)
Noun compounds-> functional
phrases
atom bomb -> atomic bomb
industry output -> industrial output
language skills -> linguistic skills
city parks -> urban parks
ocean life -> marine life

 Lexical expressions: compounds in

which each morpheme meaning may
be derived from original lexical
word.
EX: ocean life, marine life
Constructional idioms: fixed
syntactic pattern in which some
positions may be filled by specific
morphemes or words.
EX: play football, play the piano

Compounds & derived

words
Compounds: each of the constituents
is a form of a lexeme
EX: dairy man
Derived words: including affixes
EX: seller, distinction

Definition and
Characteristics
Definition:
- The basic unit of language
- The smallest linguistic unit which can occur on its
own in speech or writing.
- The smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist
of only one morpheme (e.g. wolf), but a single
morpheme may not be able to exist as a free
form (e.g. the English plural morpheme -s).
- Typically, a word will consist of a root or stem,
and zero or more affixes. Words can be combined
to create other units of language, such as phrases
, clauses, and/or sentences.

Characteristics
1. Indivisibility: structurally
impermeable -> nothing can be
inserted b/w its elements
2. Internal stability: uninterruptability
-> having freedom to move within a
sentence without destroying their
meaning
- the bus/ comes/ here/ on time
- he/ walked/ slowly/ down/ the street

Classification according to their

Structure
1. Simple words: a single free
morpheme
2. Complex word: more than one
morpheme (FB, BB)
3. Compound word: 2 free
morpheme with or without bound
morpheme

Classification according to their Word-formation

Processes
1. Coinage (neologism): creation of totally new words
EX: nylon, vaseline, aspirin
2. Borrowing: words formed by borrowing from other
languages
Ex: champagne (Fr.), kindergarten (G)
3. Blending: words formed by combining, mixing one
part with another
EX: motor/ motorist + hotel -> motel
4. Clipping: words formed by cutting/ leaving a part
EX: laboratory -> lab, telephone -> phone
5. Acronymy: words formed from the beginning
segments
EX: United Nations Organization -> UNO
6. Conversion: words formed by changing not any part
of word
EX: corner (n) -> corner (V), fool (n,a,v)
7. Affixation: words formed by adding affixes