Financial Accounting Theory

Craig Deegan 3rd edition

Chapter 2: The Financial Reporting Environment

Prepared By: Dewan Mahboob Hossain; University of Dhaka.

Users of accounting information

Diverse users:
- Present and potential investors
- Lenders
- Suppliers
- Employees
- Customers
- Governments
- The local community
- Parties performing review or oversight function
- The media

Prepared by: Dew

Statements

The balance sheet (statement of financial position)

The profit and loss account (statement of comprehensive income)
The statement of cash flows
The statement of changes in equity
The supporting notes.

Prepared by: Dew

Users understanding and knowledge

Ideally, users of financial statements should have a sound working

knowledge of the various accounting standards and other regulations,
because without such knowledge it will be nearly impossible to interpret
what the statements are actually reflecting.
Though many users of financial statements have a very poor working
knowledge of accounting.
IASB:
..users are assumed to have a reasonable knowledge of business and
economic activities and accounting and willingness to study the
information with reasonable diligence.

Prepared by: Dew

Users knowledge

Unfortunately, many readers of financial statements have tended to

consider figures such as profits or assets as being hard objective
numbers that are not subject to professional judgment.
The accounting results or numbers will be heavily dependent on particular
accounting methods chosen as well as on various professional judgment
made.

Prepared by: Dew

Highlighting points in the annual reports

Many companies provide summary highlight statements at the beginning

of their annual reports.
By highlighting the particular information, management could be deemed
to be helping the less literate readers to focus on the important results.

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Information rights of the external users

Financial accounting tends to be heavily regulated in most countries.

Most countries have a multitude of financial accounting standards that are
often given the force of law.
It is the information rights of the outsiders who are not involved in the dayto-day management of an entity that must be protected.
It is arguably important that certain rules put in place to govern how the
information should be compiled.
To protect the interests of parties external to the firm, some regulation
relating to financial accounting information is required (pro-regulation
perspective)

Prepared by: Dew

Regulation

The regulation of financial accounting in most capital market dominated

industries (the USA, the UK, Ireland, Australia and Canada) generally
commenced in the 20th century.
Regulation mainly came because of the separation of ownership and
management.

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The rationale for regulating financial accounting practice

Arguments for regulation:

1. Market for information are not efficient. Without regulation a sub-optimal

amount of information will be produced.
2. Proponents of free-market (anti-regulation) say that capital market on an
average is efficient. Such on average arguments ignore the rights of
individual investors. People can loose their savings in an unregulated
market.
3. Parties with limited power will generally be unable to secure information
about the organization.
4. Investors need protection from fraudulent organizations that may
produce misleading information.
5. Regulation emphasizes on uniformity and thus on comparability.

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Arguments against regulation

1. Accounting information is like other goods. Users will be prepared to

pay for it to the extent it has use. This will lead to optimal supply.
2. Capital market requires information. Any organization that fails to
provide information will be punished by the market.
3. Users do not bear the cost of production of information. Regulation will
lead to over supply of information. Users will overstate the need.
4. Regulation restricts the accounting methods that may be used.
Organizations will be prohibited from using accounting methods that
they believe most efficiently reflect the particular performance and
position.

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Public interest theory

It proposes that regulation be introduced to protect the public.

The regulatory body/ government is a neutral arbiter of the public interest
and does not let its own self interest impact on rule making process.

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Capture theory

Although regulation is often introduced to protect the public, the regulatory

mechanisms are often captured to protect the interests of particular self
interested groups within society, typically those whose activities are most
affected by the regulation.
That is, the regulated tend to capture the regulator.

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Economic/private interest group theory

Governments are made up of individuals who are self-interested and will

introduce regulations more likely to lead to their re-election.
In deciding on a particular regulation they will consider the impacts of the
key voters and also on election campaign finances.

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Accounting standards: should be set privately or publicly?

Advocates of private sector accounting standard setting:

Accounting profession is best able to develop accounting standards
because of the superior knowledge in accounting.
Advocates of public/government sector accounting standard
setting:
Governments have greater enforcement powers, hence the rules of the
governments are more likely to be followed.

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Professional judgment in financial accounting

While the accounting treatment of many transactions and events is

regulated, a great deal of accounting treatment pertaining to other
transactions and events is unregulated.
Even when particular regulations are in place, for example that buildings
must be depreciated, there is still scope to select the useful life of the
building and the residual value.
Many such judgments must be made.
At the core of the accounting process is an expectation that accountants
should be objective and free from bias when performing their duties.
The information being generated represent faithfully the underlying
transactions and events and it should be neutral and complete.

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How powerful is the accountant?

Although much accounting work requires judgment, imagination and

creativity, bookkeeping is boring and routine.
Historically accountants may have been willing to accept a personally
disappearing, often laughable image.
Common idea:
..a very dull fellow, unimaginative, timid, lacking in initiative, spineless,
easily dominated.

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Sowhy powerful?

The outputs of the accounting process impacts on many decisions. The

judgment of the accountant can directly impact on various parties.
Accounting information might motivate the people to take various actions
that might be advantageous and disadvantageous to the organization.

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