Digital Signal Processing Slides

Introduction
Prof.Hansa Shingrakhia
Signal, System, Signal

Processing
Signal
A signal is a function of independent variables such as
time, distance, position, temperature and pressure
Signals play an important role in our daily life.
Most signals we encounter are generated naturally.
However, a signal can also be generated synthetically or by
a computer.
Depending on the nature of the independent variables and
the value of the function, we can classify the signals as
follows

Processing
scalar signal
A signal generated by a single source
vector signal (or multichannel signal)
A signal generated by multiple sources
one dimensional (1-D) signal
A function of a single independent variable
multidimensional (M-D) signal
A function of more than one independent variables
sound
Image
Video

Processing
continuous-time signal
x(t )
The independent variable is continuous
discrete-time signal (sequence)
see
x(n)
The independent variable is discrete
analog signal
A continuous-time signal with a continuous amplitude
quantized-boxcar signal
A continuous-time signal with a discrete-value amplitude
digital signal
A discrete-time signal with a discrete-value amplitude
Sampled-data signal
A discrete-time signal with a continuous amplitude

Processing
deterministic signal
A signal that can be uniquely determined by a well-defined
process, such as a mathematical expression or rule, or table
look-up.
random signal
A single that is generated in a random fashion and cannot be
predicted ahead of time.

Processing
Periodic signal :A signal that repeats itself in a periodic
fashion from negative to positive infinity.
x ( t ) x ( t kT )
x ( n) x ( n kN )
Aperiodic signal: A signal that extends to both positive and
negative infinity without repeating in a periodic pattern.

Processing
power signal
An infinite energy signal with finite average power.
1
P lim
T T
x ( t ) dt
1
P lim
N N
N 1
x ( n)
n 0
energy signal
An finite energy signal with zero average power.
x ( t ) dt
E x ( n)
a periodic sequence power signal

a finite-length sequence energy signal

Processing
System
A system is any process that produces an output signal
in response to an input signal.
Depending on the types of the signal processed, we
can classify the systems as follows:

Processing
analog system
input and output analog signals
digital system
input and output digital signals
continuous-time system
input and output continuous-time signals
discrete-time system
input and output discrete-time signals

Processing
Signal Processing
A signal carries information !
The objective of signal processing:
To extract, enhance, store and transmit the useful information
carried by the signal.
Digital signal processing:
To implement the signal processing by a digital means.
return
The Constitution of DSP

System
Equivalent to an analog signal processor
analog
analog
PrF
ADC
DSP
DAC
PoF
waveform
PrF: antialiasing filtering

PoF: smooth out the staircase waveform
return
example
How to Implement the DSP
To handle the DSP algorithms in a general-purpose microprocessor

by means of software programming
To handle the DSP algorithms in a specifically designed Digital
Signal Processors (DSPs)
return
The Application of DSP

The main tasks of DSP
Signal Analysis
Measurement of signal properties

Spectrum (frequency/phase) analysis
Target detection, verification, recognition
Signal Filtering
Signal-in-signal-out, filter
Removal of noise/interference
Separation of frequency bands

DSP application examples
Telecommunications
Multiplexing
Compression
Echo control
Audio Processing
Music
Speech generation
Speech recognition

DSP application examples
Echo Location
Radar
Sonar
Reflection seismology
Image Processing
Medical
Space
Commercial Imaging Products

Demonstration
FM synthesis of sound
chirp
clarinet
brass
bell
Digital image processing

Deblurring
Edge detection
Noise reduction
return
The Advantages of DSP
Absence of drift in the filter characteristics

Improved quality level
Reproducibility
Ease of new function development
Multiplexing
Modularity
Total single chip implementation using VLSI technology
return
The sound signal is an example of a 1-D signal

where the independent variable is time
return
A black-and-white image signal is an example of a

2-D signal where the 2 independent variables are the
2 spatial variables.
I ( x, y)
A color image signal is a 3-channel signal composed of three

2-D signals representing the three primary color: red, green
and blue (RGB)
I R ( x , y )
u( x , y ) I G ( x , y )
I G ( x , y )
return
A black-and-white video signal is an example of a 3-D signal

where the 3 independent variables are the 2 spatial variables
and the time variable.
I ( x, y, t )
A color video signal is a 3-channel signal composed of three

3-D signals representing the three primary color: red, green
and blue (RGB)
I R ( x , y , t )
u( x , y , t ) I G ( x , y , t )
I B ( x , y , t )
return
1 1
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0.1 0.1
0.20 0.2
0
0.1
0.1 -0.1
-0.1
0
0 -0.2
-0.2
-0.1
-0.3 -0.1
-0.3
-0.2
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0.10 0.1
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-0.1
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-0.2 -0.2
-0.1
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-0.3
-0.3
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.3
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-0.5
-0.5
-0.4 0-0.40
-0.5 -0.5
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30 30
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0.1 -0.1
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0 -0.20
-0.2
-0.1
-0.1
-0.3 -0.3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.3 -0.3
-0.4 0-0.40
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20 20
30 30
30 30
30 30
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Original Image
Restored Image
Blurred Image
return
return
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Discrete-Time Signals and

Systems
Content
The Discrete-Time Signal: Sequence
The Discrete-Time System
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT)
The Symmetric Properties of the DTFT
System Function and Frequency Response
The Discrete-Time Signal:

Sequences
Elementary sequences
Unit sample sequence
1, n 0
( n)
0, n 0
1, n n0
( n n0 )
0, n n0

Sequences
Unit step sequence
1, n 0
u( n)
0, n 0
( n) u( n) u( n 1)
u( n) ( n m )
m 0
1, n n0
u( n n0 )
0, n n0

Sequences
Rectangular sequence
1, 0 n N 1
RN ( n )
otherwise
0,
RN ( n) u( n) u( n N )
N 1
RN ( n) ( n m )
m 0

Sequences
Sinusoidal sequence
x ( n) A cos( 0 n ),
A
0
amplitude
digital angular frequency
phase
x1 ( n) 1.5 cos(0.05 2 n)
x 2 ( n) 1.5 sin( 0.05 2 n)

Sequences
Real-valued exponential sequence
x ( n) a , n; a R
n
The
x (n) is convergent when | a | 1
The
x (n) is divergent when | a | 1
x1 ( n) 0.001 1.2
x 2 ( n) 0.2 0.8 n

Sequences
Complex-valued exponential sequence
x ( n) e
( j 0 ) n
n
n
x( n) e cos 0 n je sin 0 n
x re ( n) jx im ( n)
Attenuation factor
x ( n ) 2e
1
( j )n
5 8

Sequences
Classification of sequences
Finite-length sequence
x(n) is defined only for a finite time interval:

N1 n N 2
examples
where N 1 , N 2
x ( n) n 2 ,
8 n 8
y( n) cos 0.4n
The length of a finite-length sequence can be

increased by zero-padding

Sequences
Right-sided sequence
x(n) has zero-valued samples for n N 1

where N 1
If N 1 0 , a right-sided sequence is called a
causal sequence

Sequences
Left-sided sequence
x(n) has zero-valued samples for n N 2

where N 2
If N 2 0 , a left-sided sequence is called a
anti-causal sequence

Sequences
Two-sided sequence
x (n) is defined for any n

a dual-sided sequence can be seen as the
sum of a right-sided sequence and a left-sided
sequence.

Sequences
Absolutely summable sequence
x ( n)
Example:
0.3 n ,
x( n)
0,
1
0.3
1.42857
1 0.3
n0
n
n0
n0

Sequences
Square-summable sequence
x( n)
Example:
sin 0.3n
x ( n)
n
It is square-summable but not

absolutely summable

Sequences
Operations on sequence
Time-shifting operation
y( n) x ( n N )
where N is an integer
N 0 delaying operation
Unit delay
x (n)
z-1
y( n) x ( n 1)
y( n) x ( n 1)
N 0 advance operation
Unit advance x (n)
Sequence shifts
Sequence x(n)
Delayed sequence
x(n-3)
Advanced sequence
x(n+2)

Sequences
Time-reversal (folding) operation
y( n) x ( n)
Addition operation
Sample-by-sample addition
Adder
y ( n) x ( n) w ( n)
y ( n) x ( n) w ( n)
x (n)
w (n)
Examples
2
Find the following

1
1.x(n) + y(n)
2.x(n) . y(n)
x(n)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2.0
1.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
4.x(n-3)
5.y(n+2)
0.5
y(n)
3
n 0 1 2
3.2x(n) + 3y(n)
7
4 5 6
6.x(-n)
-0.5
-2.0
Graph, Table, Sequence

Sequences
Scaling operation
y( n) Ax ( n)
Multiplier
x (n)
y( n) Ax ( n)
Product (modulation) operation

Sample-by-sample multiplication y( n) x ( n) w ( n)
modulator
y ( n) x ( n) w ( n)
x(n)
w (n)

Sequences
Sample summation
n2
x ( n) x( n ) x ( n )
n n1
Sample production
n2
x ( n) x ( n ) x ( n )
n n1

Sequences
Sequence energy
Ex
*
2
x
(
n
)
x
(
n
)
|
x
(
n
)
|
Sequence power
1
Px lim
N N
N 1
| x ( n) |
n 0

Sequences
Sequence synthesis
Unit sample synthesis
Any arbitrary sequence can be synthesized in the timedomain as a weighted sum of delayed (advanced) and
scaled unit sample sequence.
x ( n)
x(k ) (n k )

Sequences
Even and odd synthesis
Even (symmetric): xe ( n) xe ( n)
Odd (antisymmetric): xo ( n) xo ( n)
Any arbitrary real-valued sequence can be
decomposed into its even and odd component:
x ( n) xe ( n) xo ( n)
1
xe ( n) [ x( n) x( n)]
2
1
xo ( n) [ x( n) x ( n)]
2
return

Introduction
A discrete-time system processes a given input
sequence x(n) to generate an output sequence y(n)
with more desirable properties.
Mathematically, an operation T [ ] is used.
y(n) = T [ x(n) ]
x(n): excitation, input signal
y(n): response, output signal
example
example

Classification
Memoryless (static) system
Linear System
Time-Invariant (Shift-Invariant) System
Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) System
Causal System
Stable System

Linear System
A system is called linear if it has two mathematical
properties: homogeneity and additivity.
T [ax ( n)] aT [ x( n)]

T [ x1 ( n) x 2 ( n)] T [ x1 ( n)] T [ x 2 ( n)]
T [a1 x1 ( n) a 2 x 2 ( n)] a1T [ x1 ( n)] a 2T [ x 2 ( n)]

Accumulator

Time-Invariant (Shift-Invariant) System
if T [ x ( n)] y( n)
then T [ x ( n n0 )] y( n n0 )
Accumulator

Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) System
A system satisfying both the linearity and the timeinvariance properties is called an LTI system.
LTI systems are mathematically easy to analyze and
characterize, and consequently, easy to design.
A accumulator is an LTI system !

The output of an LTI system is called
linear convolution sum
y( n) LTI [ x ( n)]
x(k )h(n k ) x(n) * h(n)
An LTI system is completely characterized in the time

domain by the impulse response h(n).
example

Causal System
Output depends only on current and past inputs (output is not
anticipative)
y(n)=x(n+1)-x(n) Non-causal (forward difference)
y(n)=x(n)-x(n-1) Causal
(backward difference)

An LTI system will be a causal system if and only
if :
h( n) 0,
n0
An ideal low-pass filter is not a causal system !

A sequence
x (n) is called a causal sequence if :

x ( n ) 0,
n0

Stable System
A system is said to be bounded-input bounded-output
(BIBO) stable if every bounded input produces a
bounded output, i.e.
if
x ( n) M , then y( n) P
An LTI system will be a stable system if and only if :
h(n)
Linear system - scaling

Input
x(n)
Output
y(n)
Impulse
Response
2x(n)
2y(n)
3x(n)
3y(n)
x(n)
y(n)
Linear system
-superposition
x(0)h(n-0)
x(n)
Input
x(1)h(n-1)
Impulse
Response
x(2)h(n-2)
y(n) = x(k)h(n-k)
Output
Superposition of responses
Linearity allows
scaling of impulse
response for samples
of different amplitude
Superposition allows
adding responses of
delayed input
samples
Result is the
convolution of input
sequence and system
impulse response
Examples
y(n)
1. Cos[x(n)]
2
n 1
x(k )
3. x(n)cos(0n)
4. x(-n+2)
5. Quant[x(n)]
6. x(n)+nx(n+1)
Static/
Linear/
Dynamic Nonlinear
Time
invariant/
time
varying
Causal/
Noncausal
Stable/
Unstable
Examples
Static/
Linear/
Dynamic Nonline
ar
Time
invaria
nt/ time
varying
Causal
/Noncausal
Stable/
Unstab
le
NL
TI
x(k )
TI
NC
US
3. x(n)cos(0n)
TV
4. x(-n+2)
TI
NC
TV
NC
US
y(n)
1. Cos[x(n)]
2.
n 1
x(n)+nx(n+1)
Systems that are linear and whose response does not

change with time (time independent)
If y(n) = T[x(n)], then y(n-n0)=T[x(n-n0)]
LTI is based on the principle of super-position
Linear system can be completely characterized by its

impulse response
If hk(n) is the response of the system to an impulse (n-k)

occurring at n=k then the output the system for an input
sequence x(n)=x(k)(n-k) (k=- to ) is
y ( n) T
x(k ) (n k )
x(k )T (n k ) x(k )h (n)
h1(n)
y(n)
x(n)
x(n)
h(n)=h1(n)+h2(n)
y(n)
h2(n)
x(n)
h1(n)
Cascaded
h2(n)
y(n)
x(n)
h1(n)*h2(n)
y(n)
x(n)
Z-1
x(n)
h(0)
h(1)
Z-1
Z-1
x(n-1)
x(n-2)
X h(2)
h(k-1)
Z-1
x(n-k)
x(n-k-1)
X
h(k)
X
y(n)
N 1
y ( n) h( k ) x ( n k )
k 0
Convolution Sum
R.N.Mutagi
Adders
Multiplie
rs
Memory
Involves only current and past input values
n
x(n
)
h(
n) 2
1
h(n)
2
1
4
2
1
5
4
2
1
5 2
4 5 2
2
1
4
2
1
5
4
2
1
y(n)
2
5
4
2
1
2
5
4
2
Rotate h(n) around 0 and

y(n
)
2 shift
9 22 40 46 30 14 5
2
5
4
2
5
2
5
4
2
1
1
2
5
4
2
1
x(n)
2
4
4
8
10 20
8 16
4
8
2
4
5
10
25
20
10
5
Difference equation
yn a yn k bm xn m
(1)
yn is a function of ak, bm, xn, memory = states.
or yn hk xn k h0 xn hk xn k
(2)
If we know the initial conditions, we can solve the difference equation:
x1,n y1, n
predictionsof system ' sbehavior
x2,n y2, n
If (1) is a linear constant coefficient difference equation, the

output consists of a homogeneous solution and a particular
solution: yn = yh,n + yp,n
(2.3.3)
69
Homogeneous (complementary) solution

xn 0,n 0theoutputisduetotheinitialconditions
N
Homogeneous equation:
a
k 0
yn k 0
Let ' sassume yn ak n k 0

n
k 0
Then n N (a0 N a1 N 1 K an 1 an ) 0is a characteristicequation

The characteristic equation has N characteristic roots: 1, N
If the system is real, xn, yn, and all the coefficients (a, b) are real
hn are real roots are either real or complex conjugate pairs
For LTI systems
N
yh , n ci in
is a form of solution, where ci depend on initial conditions.
i 1
if 1 = 2, solution in form of
ELEN 5346/4304 DSP and Filter Design
Fall 2008
yh ,n c11n c2 n1n
Particular solution
We apply an input and see what happens to the output for large n
Assumption: yp,n has the same form as xn:
xn
yp,n
An M
k0 n M k1n M 1 K k M
cos 0 norsin 0 n
k1 cos 0 n k2 sin 0 n
cn
knc n
An n M
Ex.:
An (k0 n M k1n M 1 K k M )
5
1
1
yn 1 yn 2 xn xn 1 y1 6; y2 6; x1 1; xn 2n ,n 0
6
6
2
Characteristic equation:
yn
(2.5.1)
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0 01 ;2 yh, n c1 c2 ;n 0 formof solution
6
6
2
2
3
3
2
3
(2.5.2)
2
Example (cont)
yn
5
1
1
yn 1 yn 2 xn xn 1 y1 6; y2 6;x1 1; xn 2n ,n 0
6
6
2
n
Got so far:
yh , n
is LTI
n
1
1
c1 c2 ;n 0
2
3
y zi ,n
1
1
7.5 3 ;n 0
2
3
Sincexn c n 2n y p ,n kc n k 2n
5
1
1
10
1
k 2n k 2n 1 k 2n 2 2n 2 n 12n 2 4k k 2n 2 (4 1)
6
6
2
6
6
1
n
4
1
k
2
p ,n
n
1

1
Totalsolution : yn yh ,n y p ,n c1 c2
2
3
2 2n
72
4. Correlation
72
Fall 2008
73
Correlation and convolution
73
Fall 2008
74
Autocorrelation
74
Fall 2008
75
Correlation maxima
75
Fall 2008
x(n)
y(n)=F{x(n),
y(n)=F{x(n),
x(n-1),..,
x(n-1),.., x(n-M)}
y(n)
x(n)
y(n)=F{y(n-N), ..,y(n-1),
..,y(n-1),
x(n), x(n-1),.., x(n-M
x(n-M)}
Delay
In a non-recursive system the output depends only on

the current and past input samples
Example: y(n)=x(n)+x(n-2)+x(n-5)
In a recursive system the output depends both on past

and current input samples and past output samples
Example: y(n)=x(n)+x(n-2)+y(n-3)+y(n-1)
y(n)
Cumulative average of x(n) in the interval 0<k<n is defined as
1 N
y ( n)
x(k ),
n 1 k 0
n 0,1,2,...
Computing y(n) non-recursively requires increasing memory. It

can be computed recursively as
N
(n 1) y (n) x(k ),
n 0 ,1,2 ,...
k 0
N 1
x ( k ) x ( n)
y(n)
x(n)
1/(n+1)
k 0
ny (n 1) x(n)
n
n
y ( n)
y (n 1)
x ( n)
n 1
n 1
Z-1
n
Fibonacci sequence is generated recursively
y(k+2)=y(k) + y(k+1)
Y(k+2) Y(k+1)
D
Y(k)
1
x ( n)
y (n) y (n 1)
2
y (n 1)
y(n) is the square root on nth iteration
y(n-1 ) is the initial estimate of square root (guess)
x(n) is the number whose square root is sought
n
y(n)
y(n-1)
x(n)/y(n-1)
3/3=1
1.75
3/2=1.5
1.732142857 1.75
3/1.75=1.714
1.7320
3/1732143=1.732
1.732142857
Eigen functions
If a linear operator T transforms an input function x(n) in to
the same function at the output with some scaling then

the function is eigen function and the scale factor is eigen
value
T [ x(n)] x(n)
d j t
Example : e e jt
dt
Complex exponential sequences are eigenfunctions of
LTI systems and the response to a sinusoidal input is a
sinusoidal with same frequency whose amplitude abd
phase are determined by the system
h( k )
j
H (e )
jk
h
[
k
]
e
d/dt
x ( n) e
j n
y ( n)
j ( n k )
h
(
k
)
e
jn
h[k ]e
k
H e j e j n
Eigenvalue H (e j ) is the frequency response
jk
Frequency response of a discrete-time LTI system is always a

periodic function of frequency variable with period 2
Periodic
frequency
response of ideal
lowpass filter
One period of the

frequency response
of ideal lowpass filter
Periodic ideal
highpass filter
Periodic ideal band

reject filter
Periodic ideal badpass

filter
Sequences can be represented by Fourier integral of the

form
1
j
jn
x[n]
X
(
e
)
e
d Synthesis equation IFT
2 coefficient discrete frequency
x(n) is a superposition of infinitesimally small complex

sinusoids of frequency ejn and amplitude X(ej)
The coefficients are obtained by
X (e )
jn
x
[
n
]
e
Analysis equation FT
Coefficients obtained from sequence x[n] determine how

much each frequency component be added to get x[n]
Frequency response of a linear time-invariant

system is the Fourier transform of the impulse
response of the system
Impulse response can be obtained from the
frequency response by using inverse
Fourier
1
j
jn
H (e j ) h[n]e jn
transform
h[n]
H
(
e
)
e
d
IFT
FT
Periodic frequency
response
Impulse
response
Conjugate symmetric sequence xe[n] is a sequence for which
xe [n] xe[n]
Conjugate anti-symmetric sequence xo[n] is a sequence for

which
x [ n] x [ n]
o
Any sequence x [n] can be expressed as
x[n] xe [n] xo [n]
where
1
xe [n] x[n] x [n] and
2
1
xo [n] x[n] x [ n]
2
A real conjugate
symmetric sequence is
called even sequence
xe [n] xe [ n]
A real conjugate antisymmetric sequence is

called odd sequence
xo [n] xo [ n]
x[n]
0
x[n]
A Fourier transform X(ej)can be decomposed in to

conjugate symmetric and conjugate anti-symmetric
functions
X ( e j ) X e ( e j ) X o ( e j )
1
where X e (e ) X (e j ) X (e j )
2
1
j
X e ( e ) X ( e j ) X ( e j )
2
j
X e e j X e e j
and
X o e j X o e j
Sequence x[n]
Fourier transform X(ej)
x*[n]
X*(e-j)
x*[-n]
X*(ej)
Re {x [n]}
Xe (ej)
Im {x [n]}
Xo (ej) conjugate anti-symmetric part of X(ej)
xe[n] conj.symm. part of x[n]
XR (ej)
xo[n] conj.antisymm. part of x[n]
jXI (ej)
Any real x [n]
X (ej)=X*(e-j) FT is conjugate symmetric
Any real x [n]
XR (ej)=XR (e-j)
Real part is even
Any real x [n]
XI (ej)=-XI (e-j)
Imaginary part is odd
Any real x [n]
|X (ej)|=|X (e-j)|
Any real x [n]
arg X (ej)=- arg X (e-j)
xe[n]
XR (ej)
even part of x[n]
conjugate symmetric part of X(ej)
Magnitude is even
Phase is odd

The M-point moving average filter is BIBO
stable :
1
y( n)
M
M 1
x( n k )
k 0
prove
A causal LTI discrete-time system:
h( n) n u( n)
prove
if | | 1, the system is stable

if | | 1, the system is not stable

Causal and Stable System
A system is said to be a causal and stable system if
the impulse response h(n) is causal and absolutely
summable , i.e.
h( n) h( n)u( n)
h(n)
return
The Discrete-time Fourier Transform

(DTFT)
The transform-domain representation of
discrete-time signal
Discrete-Time Fourier Transorm (DTFT)
Discrete-Fourier Transform (DFT)
z-Transform

(DTFT)
The definition of DTFT
DTFT: X ( e ) DTFT [ x ( n)]
jw
jwn
x
(
n
)
e
1
IDTFT: x ( n) IDTFT [ X ( e )]
2
jw
Existence condition:
| x ( n) |
X ( e jw )e jwndw

(DTFT)
The comparison of x (n) vs. X (e j )
x (n)
X (e j )
Time domain
Frequency domain
discrete
continuous
Real valued
Complex-valued
Summation
integral

(DTFT)
About X (e j )
It is a periodic function of with a period of 2
~
The integral range of ~
The range of
It can be expressed as
X ( e j ) X ( e j ) e j ( )
X ( e j )
magnitude function
( )
phase function
X (e j ) and ( ) are all real function of
example

(DTFT)
DTFT vs. z Transform
X ( e ) X ( z ) z e j
x ( n)e
j n

(DTFT)
The general properties of DTFT
Linearity
The DTFT is a linear transformation
ax ( n) by( n) aX (e j ) bY (e j )
Time
shifting
A shift in the time domain corresponds to the
phase shifting
x( n m ) e
j m
X (e )

(DTFT)
Frequency
shifting
Multiplication by a complex exponential

corresponds to a shift in the frequency domain
jn 0
x ( n) X (e
j ( 0 )
Convolution
Convolution in time domain corresponds to

multiplication in frequency domain
x1 ( n) x 2 ( n) X 1 (e ) X 2 (e )
jw
jw

(DTFT)
Multiplication
1
x1 ( n) x 2 ( n)
2
Energy
X (e
) X 2 (e
(Parsevals Theorem)
1
x ( n)
2
n
2
X (e )
X (e ) d
energy density spectrum
j ( w )
)d

(DTFT)
Multiplied
by an exponential sequence
1 j
a x ( n) X ( e )
a
n
Sequence
weighting
d
j
n x ( n) j
[ X ( e )]
d

(DTFT)
Conjugation
Conjugation in the time domain corresponds to the

folding and conjugation in the frequency domain
x ( n ) X ( e j )
Folding
Folding in the time domain corresponds to the folding

in the frequency domain
j
x ( n) X (e
Conjugation
and Folding
Conjugation and folding in the time domain corresponds
to the conjugation in the frequency domain
x ( n ) X ( e j )
return
The symmetric properties of

the DTFT
Conjugate symmetry of x (n)
Conjugate symmetric sequence:
xe ( n) xe ( n)
For real-valued sequence, it is even symmetric:
xe ( n) xe ( n)
Conjugate antisymmetric sequence: x
( n) xo ( n)
For real-valued sequence, it is odd symmetric:
xo ( n) xo ( n)

the DTFT
Any arbitrary sequence can be expressed as
the sum of a conjugate symmetric sequence and
a conjugate antisymmetric sequence
x ( n) xe ( n) xo ( n)
1
xe ( n) [ x( n) x ( n)]
2
1
xo ( n) [ x ( n) x ( n)]
2

the DTFT
Conjugate symmetry of X ( e j )
The X (e j ) can be expressed as the sum of the
conjugate symmetric component and the conjugate
antisymmetric component
X ( e j ) X e ( e j ) X o ( e j )
1
X e (e ) [ X (e j ) X (e j )]
2
1
j
X o (e ) [ X (e j ) X (e j )]
2
j

the DTFT
conjugate symmetric
X e ( e ) X e ( e j )
For real-valued function, it is even symmetric
X e ( e j ) X e ( e j )
conjugate antisymmetric
X o ( e ) X o ( e j )
For real-valued function, it is odd symmetric
X o ( e j ) X o ( e j )

the DTFT
The symmetric properties of the DTFT
Re[ x ( n)]
j Im[ x ( n)]
X e (e )
j
X o (e )
j
xe ( n)
Re[ X (e )]
xo ( n)
j Im[ X (e )]
Implication: If the sequence x (n) is real and even,

then X (e j ) is also real and even.

the DTFT
If the sequence x(n) is real, then
j
X (e ) X (e
Re[ X (e )] Re[ X (e
j
Im[ X (e )] Im[ X (e
j
X (e ) X (e
j
)]
)]
arg[ X (e )] arg[ X (e
)]
example

the DTFT
The DTFT of periodic sequences
The
DTFT of complex-valued exponential sequences
x ( n) e
X (e
j 0 n
( n )
2 (
( 0 )
2i )

the DTFT
The
DTFT of constant-value sequences
x ( n) 1
j
X (e )
(- n )
2 ( 2i )

the DTFT
The
DTFT of unit sample sequences
x ( n)
(n iN )
2
X (e )
N
j
2
(
k)
N
k

the DTFT
The
x~ ( n)
DTFT of general periodic sequences
x( n iN ) x( n) ( n iN )
2
X (e )
N
j
X (e
2
k
N
2
) (
k)
N
2
~
X ( k ) (
k)
N
k
return
System Function and Frequency

Response
The representation of a LTI system
Impulse response h(n)

N
Difference equation
a
k 0
System function H (z )
y( n k ) bm x ( n m )
m 0

Response
System function (Transfer function)
The z-transform of the impulse response h(n) of the LTI
system is called system function or transfer function
H ( z ) [h( n)]
h(n)z
H (z) Y (z) X (z)

Response
The region of convergence (ROC) for H(z)
An LTI system is stable if and only if the unit circle is in
the ROC of H(z)
An LTI system is causal if and only if the ROC of H(z) is
Rx | z |
An LTI system is both stable and causal if and only if
the H(z) has all its poles inside the unit circle, i.e. the
ROC of H(z) is
1| z |

Response
System function vs. difference equation
N
difference equation
a
k 0
y( n k ) bm x ( n m )
m 0
take z-transform for both sides
k 0
Y (z)
H (z)
X (z)
m 0
N
k
a
z
k
k 0
m 0
m
b
z
m
m
a
z
Y
(
z
)
b
z
k
m X (z)
k
1
(
1
c
z
)
m
m 1
N
1
(
1
d
z
)
k
k 1

Response
Frequency response of an LTI system
The DTFT of an impulse response is called the
frequency response of an LTI system, i.e.
H ( e j )
j n
h
(
n
)
e
H (e ) H (e ) e
j arg[ H ( e j )]
H (e j ) magnitude response function

arg[ H (e j )] phase response function
example
example

Response
Group delays
d arg[ H (e j )]
g ( )
d
In general, the frequency response H (e j ) is a

complex function of
H (e j ) is a continuous function of
H (e j ) is a periodic function of , the period is 2

Response
Response to exponential sequence
x ( n) e
j 0 n
H (e )
y( n) e
j 0 n
j 0
H (e
The output sequence is the input exponential sequence

modified by the response of the system at frequency

Response
Response to sinusoidal sequences
x(n)
H (e )
y(n)
x ( n) A cos( 0 n )
y( n) A | H (e
j 0
) | cos( 0 n arg[ H (e
j 0
)])
x( n) Ak cos( k n k )
k
y( n) Ak | H (e j k ) | cos( k n k arg[ H (e j k )])

k

Response
Response to arbitrary sequences
x(n)
H (e j ), h( n)
y( n) x ( n) h( n)
j
Y (e ) X (e ) H (e )
y(n)

Response
Geometric interpretation of frequency response
M
Y (z)
H (z)
X (z)
m
b
z
m
m 0
N
k
a
z
k
k 0
Kz ( N M )
(z c
m 1
N
(z d
k 1
)
)
1
(
1
c
z
)
m
m 1
N
(1 d
k 1
z )

Response
M
H (e ) Ke
j ( N M )
(e
cm )
(e
dk )
m 1
N
k 1
H (e ) e
j arg[ H ( e j )]
K is a real number

Response
M
H (e ) K
(e
cm )
(e
dk )
m 1
N
k 1
zero vector
pole vector
Cm e
Dk e
cm m e
d k lk e
j m
j k

Response
M
arg[ H (e )] arg[ K ] arg[e

j
m 1
arg[e
m 1
d k ] ( N M )
zero vector
C m e j c m m e j m
pole vector
Dk e j d k l k e j k
cm ]

Response
M
H (e ) K
m 1
N
k 1
m 1
k 1
arg[ H (e )] arg[ K ] m k ( N M )
j

Response
An approximate plot of the magnitude and phase
responses of the system function of an LTI system can
be developed by examining the pole and zero locations
To highly attenuate signal components in a specified

frequency range, we need to place zeros very close to
or on the unit circle in this range
To highly emphasize signal components in a

specified frequency range, we need to place poles very
close to or on the unit circle in this range

m
Response
H (e j ) K m N1
k 1
1
2
2
l1
e j
1
1
l2

Response
Minimum-Phase and Maximum-Phase system
M
N
H ( e j )
arg
m k ( N M )
K m 1
k 1
mi
mo
pi
the number of zeros inside the unit circle
po
the number of poles outside the unit circle
the number of zeros outside the unit circle

the number of poles inside the unit circle
M m i mo
N pi po
A causal stable system

H ( e j )
arg
po 0,
pi N
2m i 2pi 2 ( N M )
2
2 m i 2 M 2 mo
A causal stable system with all zeros inside the unit circle
is called a minimum-phase delayed system
H (e j )
arg
0
2
A causal stable system with all zeros outside the unit circle
is called a maximum-phase delayed system
H ( e j )
arg
2M
2
An anti-causal stable system
H ( e j )
arg
pi 0,
po N
2m i 2 ( N M )
2
An anti-causal stable system with all zeros inside the unit

circle is called a maximum-phase advanced system
H ( e j )
arg
2N 2po
2
An anti-causal stable system with all zeros outside the unit

circle is called a minimum-phase advanced system
H ( e j )
arg
2 ( N M ) 2 ( po mo )
2

Response
Important properties of minimum-phase delayed system
minimum-phase delayed system is often called
minimum-phase system for short.
It plays an important role in telecommunications
Any nonminimum-phase system can be expressed as
the product of a minimum-phase system function and a
stable all-pass system
j
For all systems with the identical | H (e ) |
N 1
N 1
n 0
n 0
n0
n 0
2
2
|
h
(
n
)
|
|
h
(
n
)
|
min
2
2
|
h
(
n
)
|
|
h
(
n
)
|
min , m N-1

Response
All-pass system
Definition
A system that has a constant magnitude response

for all frequencies, that is,
| H ap (e j ) | 1
The simplest example of an all-pass system is a

pure delay system with system function H ( z ) z k
This system passes all signals without modification
except for a delay of k samples.

Response
1-th order all-pass system

1
z a
H ap ( z )
,
1
1 az
j
a re j , 0 r 1
j
j ( )
e re
1 re
j
H ap (e )
e
j j
j ( )
1 re e
1 re
j
1 r cos( ) jr sin( )
1
1 r cos( ) jr sin( )

Response
An alternative form of 1-th order all-pass system
1 ( a ) 1 z 1
H ap ( z )
,
1
1 az
j
H ap (e ) r
a re j , 0 r 1
j Im[z ]
a
1
a
Re[z ]
Mirror image symmetry with

respect to the unit circle

Response
2-th order all-pass system

1
z a
z a
j
H ap ( z )
, a re , 0 r 1
1
1
1 az 1 a z
H ap (e j ) 1
1 ( a ) 1 z 1 1 a 1 z 1
j
H ap ( z )
, a re , 0 r 1
1
1
1 az
1 a z
j
H ap (e ) r
example

Response
example
let a re , 0 r 1
z 1 a z 1 a
z 2 2rz 1 cos r 2
H ap ( z )
1
1
1 az 1 a z
1 2rz 1 cos r 2 z 2
1
2 2
1 2rz cos r z
2
2 D( z )
z
z
1
2 2
D( z )
1 2rz cos r z
D( z ) 1 2rz cos r z
1
2 2

Response
N-th order all-pass system

1
k
1
z a
H ap ( z )
k 1 1 a k z
N
( N 1 )
d N d N 1 z d 1 z
z
z D( z )
1
( N 1 )
N
1 d 1 z d N 1 z
dN z
D( z )
j
D( e ) D ( e
j
H (e ) 1

Response
An alternative form for N-th order all-pass system
z ak
( z 1 bk )( z 1 bk )
H ap ( z )
1
1
1
k 1 1 a k z
k 1 (1 bk z )(1 bk z )
NR
NC
N R The number of real poles and zeros

N C The number of complex-conjugate pair of poles
and zeros
For causal and stable system
| a k | 1, | bk | 1

Response
Application
Phase equalizers
When placed in cascade with a system that has

an undesired phase response, a phase equalizer
is designed to compensate for the poor phase
characteristics of the system and therefore to
produce an overall linear-phase response.
H ( z ) H ap ( z ) H d ( z )

Response
j
H (e ) H ap (e ) H d (e )
j
H ap (e ) H d (e ) e
j [ ap ( ) d ( )]
arg[ H (e )] ap ( ) d ( )
Group delays
d arg[ H (e j )]
( )
ap ( ) d ( ) 0
d

Response
Any causal-stable nonminimum-phase system can
be expressed as the product of a minimum-phase
delayed system cascaded with a stable all-pass system
example
H ( z ) H min ( z ) H ap ( z )
H ( z ) H 1 ( z ) ( z 1 zo ) ( z 1 zo )
H 1 ( z ) a minimum-phase system
1 1
, a pair of conjugate zeros outside the unit circle
zo zo
| zo | 1
1
1
1
z
z
1
z
z
o
o
H ( z ) H 1 ( z ) ( z 1 zo ) ( z 1 zo )
1
1
1 zo z 1 zo z
1
o
1
z zo z z
H 1 ( z ) (1 z z ) (1 zo z )
1
1 zo z 1 zo z
1
o
H min ( z ) H ap ( z )
H 1 ( z ) (1 zo z 1 ) (1 zo z 1 ) is a minimum-phase system
z 1 zo z 1 zo
1
1
1 zo z 1 zo z
is a 2-th all-pass system

Response
By cascading an all-pass system an unstable
system can be made stable without changing its
magnitude response
example
z a
z a
H ap ( z )
1
1 az 1 a z 1
H ( z ) H ( z ) H ap ( z )
H (z ) unstable system
H (z ) stable system

Response
Relationships between system representations
H (z )
Express H(z) in
z-1 cross multiply
and take inverse
Difference
Equation
ZT
take ZT solve
for Y/X
h(n )
substitute
j
Inverse DTFT
ze
Take DTFT
solve for Y/X
Inverse ZT
DTFT
j
H (e )
return
(n)
unit sample sequence
1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-10
-5
5
n
10
15
20
-5
5
n
10
15
20
( n 5)
1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-10
return
u(n)
unit step sequence

1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-5
u( n 5)
10
15
20
10
15
20
1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-5
return
R10 ( n)
Rectangular
sequence
unit step sequence
1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-5
R10 ( n 5)
10
15
20
10
15
20
1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-5
return
1.5 cos(0.05 2 n)
Amplitude
Sinusoidal sequence
1
0
-1
-2
10
20
30
n
40
50
60
10
20
30
n
40
50
60
1.5 sin( 0.05 2 n)

Amplitude
2
1
0
-1
-2
return
Real-valued
exponential
sequence
Sinusoidal
sequence
0.25
0.001 1.2
Amplitude
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10
15
n
20
0.2
30
0.2 0.8 n
0.15
Amplitude
25
0.1
0.05
0
10
15
n
20
25
30
return
Complex-valued exponential sequence
real part
2e
Amplitude
1.5
1
( j )n
5 8
1
0.5
0
-0.5
10
20
25
30
35
25
30
35
imaginary part
1.5
Amplitude
15
1
0.5
0
-0.5
10
15
20
return
n 2 R1780( n 8)
finite-length sequence
Amplitude
60
40
20
0
-20
-15
-10
cos(0.4n)
10
15
20 n
10
15
20 n
infinite-length sequence
Amplitude
-5
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-20
-15
-10
-5
return
right-sided sequence
0.8
0.2 0.8 n u( n 5)
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-10
-5
10
n
15
20
causal sequence
0.2
30
0.2 0.8 n u( n)
0.15
Amplitude
25
0.1
0.05
0
-10
-5
10
n
15
20
25
30
return
left-sided sequence
0.8
0.2 0.8 n u( n 5)
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
n
-5
10
0.2 0.8 n u( n)
anti-causal sequence
0.2
Amplitude
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
n
-5
10
return
0.2 0.8
two-sided sequence
0.2
|n|
Amplitude
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-20
-15
-10
0
n
10
15
20
0.2 cos(0.3n)
two-sided sequence
0.2
Amplitude
-5
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
n
10
15
20
return
absolutely summable sequence
0.3 n u( n)
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-5
10
15
n
20
25
30
35
absolutely summable sequence
0.85 n u( n)
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-5
10
15
n
20
25
30
35
return
0.15
Amplitude
sin 0.3n
n
square-summable sequence
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
n
10
15
square-summable sequence
0.2
sin 0.6n
n
0.15
Amplitude
20
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
n
10
15
20
return
Time-shifting operation
0.2 0.8 u( n)
n
original sequence
Amplitude
0.2
0.1
0
-10
-5
Amplitude
0.2
10
15
delayed sequence
20
25
30
0.2 0.8 n 5 u( n 5)
0.1
0
-10
-5
Amplitude
0.2
5
10
15
advanced sequence
20
25
30 n
0.2 0.8 n 5 u( n 5)
0.1
0
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
return
folding operation
original sequence
0.8 n u( n)
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
n
10
15
20
folding sequence
0.8 u( n)
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
n
10
15
20
return
addition operation
x1(n)
1
Amplitude
0.8 n u( n)
0.5
10
15
Amplitude
25
30
35
40 n
cos(0.2n)u( n)
-1
10
15
20
x1(n)+x2(n)
25
30
35
40 n
10
15
20
25
30
35
40 n
2
Amplitude
20
x2(n)
0.8 n u( n) cos(0.2n)u( n)
1
0
-1
return
modulation operation
Amplitude
0.1
-0.1
20
40
60
80
x2(n)
100
120
20
40
60
80
x1(n)*x2(n)
100
120
20
40
60
80
100
120
Amplitude
140
160
140
160
140
160
sin 0.125n
-1
0.1
Amplitude
0.1 sin 0.0125n
x1(n)
x1 ( n) x 2 ( n)
-0.1
return
periodic sequence
1
Amplitude
sin( n)
8
periodic sequence
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
10
20
30
50
60
70
80
90
sin( n)
16
periodic sequence
Amplitude
40
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
return
Periodicity of sequence
x1(n)
Amplitude
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
40
1
Amplitude
n)
8
-1
x2(n)
50
60
70
80
50
60
70
80
90
sin(
3
n)
10
-1
1
Amplitude
sin(
x3(n)
90
sin( 0.4n)
-1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
return
T0 32
T
3
Periodicity of sequence 2
Amplitude
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
10
20
30
40
50
T0 10
T
3
Amplitude
60
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
10
20
30
40
50
60
return
12
( n) 4 ( n 1)
3 ( n 2) 6 ( n 3)
8 ( n 4) 10 ( n 5)
11 ( n 6) 9 ( n 7 )
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
return
x(n)
Amplitude
10
0 .9
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
xe(n)
10
15
20
-15
-10
-5
0
xo(n)
10
15
20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Amplitude
6
4
2
0
-20
Amplitude
-5
-20
return
Accumulator
n
n 1
y( n)
x(l ) x(l ) x(n) y(n 1) x(n)
The output y(n) at time instant n is the sum of the input

sample x (n) at time instant n and the previous output y( n 1)
at time instant n-1, which is the sum of all previous input
sample values from to n-1
The input-output relation can also be written in the form:
y ( n)
l 0
l 0
x(l ) x(l ) y( 1) x(l ), n 0
This form is used for a causal input sequence, in which

case y(-1) is called the initial condition
return
M-point moving-average system
y( n)
1
M
M 1
x( n k )
k 0
An application: consider x ( n) s( n) d ( n)
Where s(n) is the signal, and d (n) is a random noise
s( n) 2n0.9 n
M 8
1 7
y( n) x ( n k )
8 k 0
return
Amplitude
10
10
15
20
25
x(n)
30
35
40
45
50
10
15
20
25
y(n)
30
35
40
45
50
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Amplitude
10
0
10
Amplitude
s( n) 2n0.9 n
s(n),d(n)
return
y ( n)
Accumulator
x( l )
T [ x1 ( n)]
x (l ),
T [ax1 ( n) bx 2 ( n)]
n
T [ x 2 ( n)]
x (l )
[ax ( l ) bx
( l )]
a x1 ( l ) b x 2 ( l ) aT [ x1 ( n)] bT [ x 2 ( n)]
Hence, the above system is linear
return
y ( n)
Accumulator
x( l )
n k
T [ x ( n k )]
x(l )
y( n k )
n k
x(l ) T [ x(n k )]
Hence, the above system is time-invariant
return
1.5
Amplitude
x ( n) R10 ( n)
x(n)
0.5
0
10
15
20
Amplitude
1.5
25
h(n)
30
35
40
45
50
h( n) 0.9 n u( n)
0.5
0
10
15
20
Amplitude
10
25
y(n)
30
35
40
45
50
y( n) x ( n) h( n)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
return
The M-point moving average filter

1 M 1
y( n)
x(n k )
M k 0
For a bounded input x ( n) B x , we have
1
y( n)
M
M 1
1
x
(
n
k
)
M
k 0
M 1
x( n k )
k 0
( MB x ) B x
M
Hence, the M-point moving average filter is BIBO stable
return
A causal LTI discrete-time system
h( n) u( n)
n
1
S | a | u( n) | a |
1 a
n
n0
n
if | a | 1
if | | 1, the system is stable

if | | 1, the system is not stable
return
DTFT[0.9 n e jn / 3 R11 ( n)]

real part
Amplitude part
8
6
Amplitude
Amplitude
6
4
2
0
-2
-1
Amplitude
-1
0
pi
-1
0
pi
imaginary part
-0.5
-2
0
-2
phase part
0.5
phase(pi)
0
pi
-5
-2
-1
0
pi
return
Amplitude part
DTFT[0.9 n R11 ( n)]

8
6
Amplitude
Amplitude
6
4
2
0
-1
-0.5
0.5
0
-1
Amplitude
phase(pi)
0
pi
phase part
0.5
-0.5
-1
real part
-0.5
0
pi
0.5
-0.5
0
pi
0.5
imaginary part
-5
-1
-0.5
0
pi
0.5
return
H (z)
1
z 1
z 2 0.9 z 0.81
0.8
0.6
Imaginary Part
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1
-0.5
0
Real Part
0.5
Amplitude response
15
H (z)
z 1
z 2 0.9 z 0.81
Amplitude
10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
pi
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.9
phase response
phase(pi)
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
pi
0.6
return
7 19 1
z
H ( z ) 12 24
5 1
1 z z 2
2
Imaginary Part
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
Real Part
1.5
Amplitude response
0.55
Amplitude
0.5
0.45
7 19 1
z
H ( z ) 12 24
5 1
1 z z 2
2
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
pi
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.9
phase response
phase(pi)
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
pi
0.6
return
Imaginary Part
z a
z a
H ap ( z )
1
1 az 1 a z 1
1.5
1
(r , )
21
3
1
a
0.5
-0.5
Mirror -1image symmetry
1
a
-1.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
Real Part
0.5
1.5
return
1 2.61z 1 3.08 z 2 1.85 z 3 0.83 z 4

H (z)
1
2
1
1
.
12
z
0
.
48
z
1
0.8
1
zo
0.6
Imaginary Part
0.4
0.2
2
-0.2
-0.4
1
zo
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1
-0.5
0
Real Part
0.5
return
1
0.8
1
zo
0.6
Imaginary Part
0.4
zo
0.2
2
-0.2
zo
-0.4
1
zo
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1
-0.5
0
Real Part
0.5
return
1 0.83 z 1 0.35 z 2
H (z)
1
2
1
2
.
41
z
2
.
26
z
1
a
1
0.8
0.6
zo
Imaginary Part
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
1
a
-0.8
-1
-1
-0.5
0
Real Part
0.5
return

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Introduction

Signal, System, Signal

Signal, System, Signal

Signal, System, Signal

The independent variable is continuous

discrete-time signal (sequence)

The independent variable is discrete

A discrete-time signal with a discrete-value amplitude

Signal, System, Signal

Signal, System, Signal

Signal, System, Signal

a periodic sequence power signal

Signal, System, Signal

Signal, System, Signal

Signal, System, Signal

The Constitution of DSP

PrF: antialiasing filtering

How to Implement the DSP

To handle the DSP algorithms in a general-purpose microprocessor

The Application of DSP

Measurement of signal properties

The Application of DSP

The Application of DSP

The Application of DSP

Digital image processing

The Advantages of DSP

Absence of drift in the filter characteristics

The sound signal is an example of a 1-D signal

A black-and-white image signal is an example of a

A color image signal is a 3-channel signal composed of three

A black-and-white video signal is an example of a 3-D signal

A color video signal is a 3-channel signal composed of three

Discrete-Time Signals and

The Discrete-Time Signal:

Unit sample sequence

The Discrete-Time Signal:

Unit step sequence

The Discrete-Time Signal:

The Discrete-Time Signal:

The Discrete-Time Signal:

Real-valued exponential sequence

x (n) is convergent when | a | 1

x (n) is divergent when | a | 1

The Discrete-Time Signal:

Complex-valued exponential sequence

The Discrete-Time Signal:

x(n) is defined only for a finite time interval:

The length of a finite-length sequence can be

The Discrete-Time Signal:

x(n) has zero-valued samples for n N 1

The Discrete-Time Signal:

x(n) has zero-valued samples for n N 2

The Discrete-Time Signal:

x (n) is defined for any n

The Discrete-Time Signal:

Absolutely summable sequence

The Discrete-Time Signal:

It is square-summable but not

The Discrete-Time Signal:

The Discrete-Time Signal:

Time-reversal (folding) operation

Find the following

Graph, Table, Sequence