Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Engineering Department
To a City
From a Garden
A Reflection on Technology
Despite its limitations and dangers, technology can alleviate in part the bind in
which humankind naturally finds itself. Appropriate technology can increase
lifes possibilities, decrease physical burdens and difficulties at work, and free
people from routine activities while opening the door to all kinds of mental
creative labor. Natural disasters can be averted, illness overcome, and, in a
certain sense, with the aid of electronics and microprocessors, the deaf can hear,
the blind can see, and the lame walk again. Technology development can
provide a degree of social security, and increase available information so as to
extend and deepen communications.
Adapted from Perspectives on Technology and Culture, by Egbert Schuurman
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
ENGR W8
MTWTHF
02:00PM
054
NH
08/IN
ENGR W84
A Intro. to
Power/Energ
y Systems
08/IN
NH
054
02:00PM 05:00PM
MTWTHF
Course Instructions
Text
Class Notes; Internet / Web Resources
References: The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. CRC / IEEE Press, 2000.
Power System Analysis, Hadi Saadat, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Power System Analysis, 2nd Edition, Arthur R. Bergen and Vijay Vittal, Prentice-Hall, 1999.
Power Systems Analysis John J. Grainger and William D. Stevenson McGraw-Hill, 1994.
Elements of Power Systems Analysis, 4th Edition, William D. Stevenson, McGraw-Hill, 1982.
Electrical Energy Systems Theory, Olle Elgerd, McGraw-Hill, 1971;
Power Systems Analysis, Charles Gross, John Wiley & Sons, 1979
Power System Analysis & Design, J.D. Glover and M. Sarma, 2nd Edition, PWS Publishers, 1994
Grades
(based on homework assignments, class participation, final paper/presentation, class log/notes)
Pass
Pass Honor
Fail
(S)
(H) For Outstanding Work
(U)(*)
7 class periods
(*) incomplete/insufficient assignments and/or missed two
Course Instructions
My objective is to provide you with a learning environment in
which you will learn the fundamentals of power systems.
My approach is to encourage the student to learn how to
learn. To take ownership of the learning process: Initiative,
involvement, interactive participation are the keys to an
effective learning experience.
Please keep me informed if you do not feel that I have been
successful in this goal. Do not wait until evaluation time to
express your frustrations. I want to listen to your concerns or
difficulties with the material, and am always available to help
you outside the classroom.
8
Objectives/Introductory Words:
To understand voltage regulation, real and reactive power, three phase power,
power quality, efficiency, practical stability limits, etc., etc.
Projects
11
Projects
12
Projects
Steve Faber
Newberry Place
13
Projects
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18
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Make sure you have your students run LOTS of load flows...
PowerWorld has an excellent demo package for schools.
You can be sure to tell them that in the "real world" though,
we are running 30,000+ bus load flows!
However, they will NOT have to know anything about
wavelets! :-)
We have a lot of positions open and will have more in the
near future.
Regards,
W.G, Ph.D., P.E.
Supervisor, Operations Engineering
Southwest Power Pool
21
Objectives/Introductory Words:
The Big Picture
22
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Power System Components
Electrical Components
Light bulb
Socket
Switch
Watthourmeter
Distribution system
Wire to switch
Circuit breaker
Substation
Capacitors
Circuit breakers
Disconnects
Transformers
Subtransmission system
Tap changers
Current transformers
Potential transformers
Protective relaying
Reactors
Metal-oxide varistors
Transmission system
Suspension insulators
Buses
Capacitor banks
Lightning arrestors
Generators
24
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Non-Electrical Components
Glass for bulbs
Manufacture of bulbs
Switches
Circuit box
Transmission towers
Maintenance
Sockets
Cars
Bridges
25
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Basics Facts, Issues and Questions
26
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Power system operation and control
Technical issues
27
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Regulatory and policy issues
Electricity restructuring
28
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Historical Context
Static electricity discovered about 600 BC by Thales.
Electromagnetism studied systematically by William Gilbert, 1600
First battery, Allessandro Volta, 1800
Relationship between current and magnetism, Andre Ampere, 1825
Ohms law, George Ohm, 1827
Faradays law, Michael Faraday, 1831
Maxwells Equations, James Clerk Maxwell, 1864
First practical generator and motor, Zenobe Thoephile Gramme, 1873
Incandescent Lamp, Thomas Edison, 1879
First power station Pearl Street, Manhattan, Thomas Edison, 1882
First Hydroelectric plant, Appleton Wisconsin, 1882
DC motor produced, Frank J. Sprague, 1884
Transformer demonstrated, William Stanley, 1886
Polyphase AC system, induction and synchronous motors, Nicola Tesla, 1888
First single-phase Transmission line in US, Oregon, 1889 - By 1900, over 3000
Stations
29
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Recent Developments
High-speed relay systems
High-speed, EHV circuit breakers
Surge Arresters (MOVs)
Communications applications in power systems
Energy control centers with SCADA and AGC
Development of power electronics devices
Adjustable speed drives / motors
Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
30
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Current Issues
Two extensive outages in 1996
July 2, 1996
Combined issues of Power system stability
Protective Relaying
System Planning
Two million customers affected in 14 states, Canada and Mexico
Initiating event related to power line touching a tree
August 10, 1996
4 million customers affected in 9 states
Initiating event: over heated transmission lines sag to trees
Utility Deregulation
The intention is that removing state regulation from utility operation will reduce prices.
A number of states already have legislation in place requiring deregulation, California is
already phasing it in.
31
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
12 - 34,5 kV
Itaip
Per Generator
750 MVA, 18 kV => 24.000 A
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
Transformation
Transformer to 500 kV
890 A
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
7,2 kV
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
... Transmission
7,2 kV
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
Substations
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
LT Emborcao Nova
Ponte 500 kV
LT Itumbiara Nova
Ponte 500 kV
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
Jurupari-Macap 230kV
Tucuru-Manaus
500 kV
Acre/RondniaSE/CO 230 kV
Norte-Nordeste
500 kV
Norte-Sul III
500 kV
Reforos nas
Regies SE/CO
500 kV
Sul-Sudeste
525 kV
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
Transformers
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Analytical Background
Mechanical Energy
Rotational Energy
Electrical Energy
Power
Plus
Circuit Analysis
Electronics
Signal Processing
Communications
Electrical Power
Controls
Economics
71
72
Power Generation
73
73
Commercial
Industrial
480 V 4160 V.
Distribution
2300 V32000 V
Subtransmission
25 kV 130 kV
13.2 kV
36 kV
74
Power Transformers
75
76
77
78
Phase Angle
79
80
81
Advantages of Phasors
Less Cumbersome (short hand notation)
Simpler Calculations (complex arithmetic, calculators can do), generally less need
for integration and differentiation
Additional insights may be obtained about relations between currents, voltages,
and power
Limitations
Applies only to sinusoidal steady-state systems
Power Calculated using phasors is only the time average
82
83
84
85
Instantaneous Power in an
AC Circuit
Multiply Voltage at time t by the current at time t.
Note that power may flow in both directions.
Instantaneous Power in an
AC Circuit
Phase angle zero
Current leading
Voltage by
45 degrees
87
Instantaneous Power in an
AC Circuit
Current leading
Voltage by
90 deg
88
89
90
91
92
Current lagging
Voltage by
90 deg
93
94
95
96
97
3 Phase Generator
98
3 Phase Voltages
99
100
Current = I
Voltage=
V 0 deg
3 phase circuit
Phase a
Voltage a=
V 0 deg
Voltage c=
V +120 deg
Neutral
Voltage b=
V -120 deg
Phase b
Phase c
3 Phase
Load
Voltage b=
V -120 deg
Phase b
Phase c
104
3 Phase Quantities
Ia
Ia
Va
Iab
Va
Vc
105
Vb
Vab
V1 = 13.2*10^3 + j0
P&Q
I
ZLine = 1 +j7
ZLoad = 10 +j30
C=?
HW 2 - Calculate the voltage at the receiving end of the line. If the voltage is
too low, compute the size of the capacitor which will recover the voltage to
the same value of the sending end. Use MathCAD/Mathematica to calculate
the value of C and then PSpice to verify behavior.
106
R
V 0 deg
XL
V 0 deg
XL
107
Bus 1
Z = R +jX
V1 deg
V2 deg
Demonstrate that
108
Network Equations
KCL and KVL in phasor domain
Formulation of mesh equations
Formulation of nodal equations
Conversion of system of equations to matrices
Matrix operations
Inverse
Transpose
Conjugate
Solution of matrix equations
Example Discussion (Admittance and Impedance Matrix)
109
Transmission lines
Short
Medium
Long
111
112
Shield Wires
ACSR
Ground Wires
AAC
Lightning Protection
AAAC
Electrical factors
Resistance and thermal loading
ACAR
Configurations
Inductance
bundles
Capacitance
Insulators
Porcelain
Mechanical Factors
Structural Integrity
Polymer
Vibration
Support Structures
Thermal
Wood
Lattice
Environmental Factors
Tubular Steel
Visual Impact
Concrete
EM exposure
Right of Way
Fiberglass
Danger to Wildlife
113
114
Generators
Power Transformers
The Per Unit System
115
Generation /Generators
http://hydropower.inel.gov/state/stateres.htm
116
Generation /Generators
Reduces losses
Transmission conductor can have a smaller cross
section
Provides better voltage regulation at the load bus
120
Power Transformers
121
Transformer Basics
122
123
Real Transformers
Real Transformers
Transformer Types
Power Transformers
Current Transformers
Voltage Transformers
Series Transformers
Transformer Purchasing Issues
Efficiency
Audible Noise
Installation Costs
Manufacturing Facilities
Performance Record
Questions? Discussions...
125
127
TCUL Transformer
128
Three-Phase Transformers
Transformer Connections
Each leg is a single phase transformer
Y-Y connections (no phase shift)
connections (no phase shift)
Y- connections (-30 degrees phase shift)
Y connections (+30 degrees phase shift)
129
130
Advantages
1. Per-unit representation results in a more meaningful and correlated data. It gives relative magnitude
information.
2. There will be less chance of missing up between single - and three-phase powers or between line and phase
voltages.
3. The p.u. system is very useful in simulating machine systems on analog, digital, and hybrid computers for
steady-state and dynamic analysis.
4. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in p.u. (or per cent) on the base of the
name plate rating of power ( ) and voltage ( ). Hence, it can be used directly if the bases chosen are the same as
the name plate rating.
5. The p.u. value of the various apparatus lie in a narrow range, though the actual values vary widely.
6. The p.u. equivalent impedance (Zsc) of any transformer is the same referred to either primary or secondary
side. For complicated systems involving many transformers or different turns ratio, this advantage is a
significant one in that a possible cause of serious mistakes is removed.
7. Though the type of transformer in 3-phase system, determine the ratio of voltage bases, the p.u. impedance
is the same irrespective of the type of 3-phase transformer. (Y D , D Y, D D , or Y Y)
8. Per-unit method allows the same basic arithmetic operation resulting in per-phase end values, without
having to worry about the factor '100' which occurs in per cent system.
131
Conversion Procedure
-Specify the MVA base. Typically this will be related to the rating of a generator,
transformer, or transmission line. Just choose the one that will result in the least
amount of computation. This base will remain constant throughout the system.
-At any location in the circuit, specify a voltage base. This will typically be the
nominal voltage for that particular location.
-Determine the voltage base for all other areas in the circuit by adjusting by the
turns ratio every time a transformer is encountered.
-Having specified the voltage and MVA base throughout the system, current and
impedance bases may be determined as:
-For each value, the per unit quantity is the actual value divided by the base value.
-For 3phase circuits, the following relationships must also be included:
132
133
134
135
136
Numerical Example
Let. V = 118 00 volts
Z = 5 300 ohms
Then I = 23.6 -300 amperes
& S = V I* = (118 00)(23.6 +300) va
= 2,784.8 300 va
For this example, it is appropriate to choose:
SlB = 3,000 va
VlB = 120-volts
Then IlB = = 25 amperes
& ZlB = = 4.8 ohms
137
138
A three phase system consists of a generator, two transformers, two transmission lines, and two loads, as follows:
G1
is a 300 MVA generator rated at 25 kV, with an impedance of .05 p.u. (Assume that generator is operating at rated terminal
voltage)
T1
is a bank of three single phase 25 kV/199.2 kV transformers, each rated at 100 MVA, connected D-Y with a leakage reactance
of 2.5%
T2
is a three phase 200 MVA transformer rated 345 kV/13.8 kV, with X=j.08.
T3
is a three phase 1 MVA transformer rated 345 kV/4160, with X=j.02.
L1
is a transmission line having an impedance of j75 W
L2
is a distribution line having an impedance of j5 W
Z1
is an industrial facility with an effective impedance
of 1 ohm at .85 power factor lagging
Z2
is a substation load with an effective impedance
of 17.5 ohm at .7 power factor leading
140
141
142
P, Q
143
144
145
Power Flow
146
345.0
MW
141.16
100.00
1 -36.75
1
77.91
MVAR
-14.21R
0.00
8.09
-22.30
MVA
141.9
100.0
37.6
81.0
BUS
2 Bus 2
GENERATOR 1
LOAD 1
TO
1 Bus 1
TO
4 Bus 4
345.0
MW
363.00
200.00
1
37.18
1 125.86
MVAR
100.22R
100.00
-5.83
6.05
MVA
376.6
223.6
37.6
126.0
BUS
3
LOAD 1
SWITCHED
TO
1
TO
4
Bus 3
SHUNT
Bus 1
Bus 4
345.0
MW
100.00
0.00
1 -76.92
1 -23.15
MVAR
15.00
81.33
27.55
38.71
MVA
101.1
81.3
81.7
45.1
27
23
BUS
TO
TO
TO
Bus
Bus
Bus
Bus
4
2
3
5
138.0
MW
1 -123.48
1
23.45
1 100.04
MVAR
6.66
-37.11
30.44
MVA
123.7
43.9
104.6
BUS
5 Bus 5
LOAD 1
TO
4 Bus 4
34.5
MW
100.00
1 -100.04
MVAR
20.00
-19.92
MVA
102.0
102.0
4
2
3
5
% 1.0000
0.00
2 2
3.51
1 Home
-3.73
1 Home
25
27
% 1.0000
25
50
% 1.0083
% 0.9946
10
147
-7.99
0.9625NT
0.0
1 Home
148
149
How does
power flow?
Flow from production
point to purchase point
uses every transmission
path available
Flow on each
intermediate
transmission facility is
determined by its
impedance
150
151
154
155
where
N is the number of network buses,
Pk is the net real power injected into the kth bus,
Qk is the net reactive power injected into the kth bus,
Yk,i is the total admittance between bus k and i: this
total can be found from the bus admittance matrix,
Ybus, of the system,
Vi is the voltage of the ith bus.
156
where k,n is the angle of the admittance, Yk,n, and j is the voltage phase angle at bus, j.
A real power equation is written for every PV- and PQ-bus and a reactive power equation is
written for every PQ-bus. Thus, for a power system with N buses of which L are PQ-buses
there are (N-1) real power equations (excluding the slack bus) and L reactive power
equations (a total of N-1+L equations). The unknowns are the magnitude and phase angle
of the L PQ-bus voltages and the phase angle of the (N-1-L) PV-bus voltages (a total of N1+L unknowns).
The left-hand side of these equations are known and an iterative process is used for finding
the unknown voltages and phase angles such the
above equations are balanced.
157
where
P is the vector of the known net real power injections at PV- and PQ-buses,
Q is the vector of the known reactive power injections at PQ-buses,
V is the vector of the unknown bus voltage magnitudes,
is the vector of the unknown bus voltage phase angles, and
fp, fq are functions defined according to Equations (3.1.2).
158
The power mismatch is a measure of how close to the solution the estimations of V and
are. A correction to these estimations is obtained using the Newton-Raphson method,
resulting in an iterative calculation process.
where the superscript, j, denotes variables calculated at the jth iteration step. J is the Jacobian matrix of the
equations:
159
The iteration process continues until the power mismatch at the jth step is smaller than a preset number .
To start the above iterative solution, an estimation of the unknown voltages and their phase angles is
required. This first solution approximation is called initial guess. Typically, the initial guess for the
voltage magnitudes is 1 pu and for their phase angles is 0 degrees (or radians).
160
http://www.deregulation.com/electric.html
161