Lithosphere

(Geo-Chemistry)
Fitri Khoerunnisa, Ph.D.
Mobile.081220781409
fitri@upi.edu; fkhoerunnisa(line, whatsapp)

The geosphere and

geochemistry
Lithosphere:
a. Geosphere and
geochemistry
b. Soil chemistry

The geosphere and

geochemistry
A series issues :
a.The extraction of earth minerals and coal.
b.The low pH that drastically changes the
solubilities and oxidation-reduction rates of
minerals.
c.Erosion caused by intensive cultivation of land
wash out the topsoil from fertile farmlands.
d.In some areas of industrialized countries, the
geosphere has been the dumping ground for toxic
chemicals, wastes, etc.

The nature of solid in

geosphere

Rocks:
a.composed of minerals,
b.naturally occurring
inorganic solid with a
definite internal
c.crystal structure and
chemical composition.
d.an aggregate of two or
more minerals.

The nature of solid in

geosphere

Structure and properties of

minerals
The crystal structure of a mineral refers to the way in which
the atoms are arranged relative to each other (X-ray
determination).
Different minerals may have the same chemical composition,
or they may have the same crystal structure, but cannot
have both the identical for truly different minerals.
The characteristic of a pure crystalline mineral :
a. Crystal form
b. Color (luster)
c. Hardness (Mohs scale : Talc (1) to diamond (10)
d. Cleavage (fracture)
e. Specific gravity

Kinds of Minerals
Elemental composition of the crust:
a.Oxygen (49.5% )
b.Silicon (quartz, SiO2, orthoclase/KAlSi3O8) (25.7%)
c.aluminum (7.4%)
d.iron (4.7%)
e.calcium (3.6%)
f.sodium (2.8%)
g.potassium (2.6%),
h.magnesium (2.1%)
i.other (1.6%)

Major mineral group in the

crust

Kinds of Minerals
Clays are silicate minerals, usually containing alumunium,
which constitute one of the most secondary mineral.

Evaporites are soluble salts that precipitate from solution under

special arid conditions, commonly as the result of the evaporation of
seawater.
The type of evaporites:
a. Halite (NaCl)
b. Sylvite (KCl)
c. Thenardite (Na2SO4)
d. Anhydrite (CaSO4)
e. Bischofite (MgCl26H2O)
f. kieserite (MgSO4H2O)
g. gypsum (CaSO42H2O)

h. epsomite (MgSO47H2O)
i.
carnallite (KMgCl36H2O)
j. polyhalite
(K2MgCa2(SO4)42H2O)
k. kainite (KMgClSO411/4H2O)
l. glaserite(K3Na(SO4)2)
m. loeweite
(Na12Mg7(SO4)1315H2O)

Kinds of Minerals
Sublimates : a number of mineral substances are gaseous
at the magmatic temperatures of volcanoes and are
mobilized with volcanic gases. Exp: elemental sulfur, rion
oxide, chlor and sulphate salts

igneous rock:are formed under water deficient,

chemically reducing conditions of high temperature and
high pressure granite, basalt, quartz (SiO2), pyroxene
((Mg,Fe)SiO3), feldspar ((Ca,Na,K)AlSi3O8),
olivine((Mg,Fe)2SiO4), and magnetite (Fe3O4). Igneous rocks.

Sedimentary rocks : a result of sediment conversion

(porous, soft, and chemically reactive)

Metamorphic rock : resulted from heat and pressure

conversion of sedimentary rock

The rock cycle

The rock cycle

Geochemistry
a. deals with chemical species, reactions, and processes
in the lithosphere and their interactions with the
atmosphere and hydrosphere.
b. explores the complex interactions among the
rock/water/air/life systems that determine the
chemical characteristics of the surface environment.

Weathering
Physical aspects
Other mechanical aspects are swelling and
shrinking of minerals with hydration and
dehydration, as well as growth of roots through
cracks in rocks.

Weathering
Chemical aspects
Involves chemical mechanisms of
dissolution/precipitation, acid-base reactions,
complexation, hydrolysis, and oxidation-reduction.
Weathering occurs extremely slowly in dry air but is
many orders of magnitude faster in the presence of
water.
Weathering agent transported to chemically active
sites on rock minerals and contact the mineral
surfaces at the molecular and ionic level.

Chemical Weathering
Hydration/dehydration

Dissolution

Oxidation
Dissolution with hydrolysis occurs
Acid hydrolysis
Complexation,

Soil Chemistry
The study of the chemical characteristics of soil.
Soil chemistry is affected by mineral
composition, organic matter and environmental
factors.
Soil consists of :
(i) The unconsolidated mineral or organic
material on the immediate surface of the Earth
that serves as a natural medium for the growth
of land plants.

Soil Chemistry
(ii) The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter
on the surface of the Earth that has been
subjected to and shows effects of genetic and
environmental factors
Environmental factor includes:
climate (including water and temperature
effects),
macro- and micro organisms,
conditioned by relief,
acting on parent material over a period of time.

Soil Chemistry
A product-soil differs from the material from
which it is derived in many physical, chemical,
biological, and morphological properties and
characteristics
An average soil sample is 45 percent minerals,
25 percent water, 25 percent air, and five
percent organic matter. Different-sized mineral
particles, such as sand, silt, and clay, give soil its
texture.
Topsoil is the most productive soil layer.

Composition of soil

Soil Chemistry
Soil:
formed by the weathering of parent rocks as the result of
interactive geological, hydrological, and biological processes.
porous and are vertically stratified into horizons as the result of
downward-percolating water and biological processes, including
the production and decay of biomass
open systems that undergo continual exchange of matter and
energy with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere
consisting of a finely divided layer of weathered minerals and
organic matter upon which plants grow,
a key component of environmental chemical cycles and the
most fundamental requirement for agriculture.

Nature of Soil
Soil is a variable mixture of minerals, organic matter,
and water capable of supporting plant life on the
earths surface.
It is the final product of the weathering action of
physical, chemical, and biological processes on
rocks, which largely produces clay minerals.
The organic portion of soil consists of plant biomass
in various stages of decay.
High populations of bacteria, fungi, and animals such
as earthworms can be found in soil.
Soil has a loose texture

Soil Horizon
Horizons form as the result of
complex interactions among
processes that occur during
weathering.
top soil layer (A Horizon)
has several inches in thickness
the maximum layer of biological
activity in the soil contains most
of the soil organic matter.
Metal ions and clay particles in
the A horizon are subject to
considerable leaching.
.

Soil Horizon
Sub soil layer (B horizon)
It receives material such as
organic matter, salts, and
clay particles leached from
the topsoil.
The C horizon
composed of weathered
parent rocks from which the
soil originated

Soil Particle sizes

Category of soil particle
sizes:
1.Gravels ( 2 -60 mm)
2.Sands ( 0.06-2 mm)
3.Silts
(0.06-0.006 mm)
4.Clays
(< 0.002 mm)

Soil Constituents
Soil mineral constituent:
a. quartz (SiO2)
b. Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
c. Albite (NaAlSi3O8)
d. Epidote (4CaO. 3(AlFe)2O3. 6SiO2.H2O)
e. Geothite (FeO(OH))
f. Magnetite (Fe3O4)
g. Carbonate (CaCO3, MgCO3)

Organic Matter Soil

a. Largely determined soil
productivity
b. Serves as a source of
food for microorganism
c. Undergoes chemical
reactions
d. Contribute to the
weathering of mineral
matter

Organic Matter Soil

Soil (ion Exchange)

Organic colloids and inorganic micelles (clays) are
sites of ion exchange
Ions adsorbed to soil surfaces can be exchanged
with ions in soil solution.
Where do ions in soil come from?
Release from organic matter
Rain
Weathering of parent material

Cations Exchange

Source of charges

Strength of adsorption

Mechanism of charge balance

Cations exchange capacity

CEC factors

CEC Factors (pH)

Anions Exchange Capacity (AEC)

Relationship of CEC/AEC and pH

Measuring CEC/AEC

How to determine CEC?

Finding CEC contribution of colloid

Finding CEC of each soil type

pH of Common Products & Soils

Range found in
common products
Milk of
magnesia

Bicarbonate
of soda

Pure water
Milk

pH scale
10
9
8

Sodic
soils

Calcareous
soils

7
6

Natural rain

5
Beer
Coffee

Range found
in various soils

Humid
region
arable
soils
Forest
soils

Ion Exchanges in Soil

Exchangeable cations (on soil surfaces)
cannot be removed by leaching.
Soluble cations (in solution)
can be removed by leaching

Ion exchange in soils

Soil has cation exchange capacity
Organic materials exchange cations due to the
presence of carboxylate and basis functional
groups
Ion exchange causes the leaching metal ions
from soil

Soil Acidity
Plants grrow best in soil with pH near neutrality
Adicity increase limiting the productivity

Nutrients

The role of Macronutrients

Waste Disposal
Type of wastes:
a.Tracable
wastes which can be
treated or rendered safe
b. Intracable
wastes which cannot be treated
or rendered safe

Metode of disposal:
a. Landfill
b. Incerination
c. Recycling
d. Sustainability (biological reprocessing; energy recovery)
e. Resouce recovery
f. Avoidance and reduction method

Waste management

Waste disposal: Landfill

Open dumping method:
any solid trashes that have been gathered only need to be
piled up into two or four meters dumped in the available area
before it is recycled or destroyed
Disadvantageous:
1.spreading foul odors.
2.provides the area for germs, viruses, and vermin to breed;
so, it becomes the source of many diseases.
3.can contaminates the ground water.
4.prone to cause slide down.
5.occupies an unnecessarily large area

Waste disposal : Landfill

Sanitary landfills :
Consisting of refuse piled on top of the ground or into a
depression such as a valley, compacted, and covered at
frequent intervals by soil.

Waste disposal: Landfill

Secure landfill:
Related to disposal of hazardous chemicals

Waste disposal: incerination

Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic
wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them
into residue and gaseous products (gas, ash, heat, steam)

Waste disposal: Recycles

Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the
collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty
beverage containers.
The materials from which the items are made can be
reprocessed into new products.
Recyclable material :
Beverage can (alumunium), wire (Copper), aerosol can (steel),
PE/PET/PP bottles, glass bottle, paperboard cartons,
newspaper etc.

Waste disposal:
sustainability
a. Composting : decomposition of organic matter and
recycled as fertilizer
b. Anaerobic digestion : collection of processes by which
microorganism breakdown biodegradable material in the
absence of oxygen
c. Microbial fuel cell

Anaerobic digestion

Resources recovery
Resource recovery is the selective extraction of disposed
materials for a specific next use, such as recycling, composting
or energy generation.
The aim of the resource recovery is to extract the maximum
practical benefits from products, delay the consumption of
virgin natural resources, and to generate the minimum amount
of waste.
Waste reduction/ Methods of avoidance include:
a.reuse of second-hand products,
b.repairing broken items instead of buying new, designing
products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of
plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using
disposable products
c.removing any food/liquid remains from cans,
d.packaging and designing products that use less material to
achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of