GRAVITATION

FORCES IN THE UNIVERSE

Kinds of Forces
1. Gravity
2. Electromagnetism
* magnetism
* electrostatic forces
3. Weak Nuclear Force
4. Strong Nuclear Force

Increasing
Strength

proton

Electromagnetic Force
38
10
Gravitational Force

electron

Strong
Force
binds
together
protons &
neutrons
in
atomic
nuclei

proton

Weak Force:
n

Decay of the
Neutron

electron

GRAVITATION

GRAVITY keeps the moon orbiting

Earth . . . and Dactyl orbiting Ida . . .
It holds stars
together . . .

And binds galaxies together

for billions of years . . .
Prevents
planets
from losing
their
atmospheres . . .

FALLING BODIES

Falling objects accelerate at a

constant rate (Galileo):

Ball

Speed is gained at a constant rate:

9.8 m/sec/sec
Acceleration due to gravity

p. 82

Earth

Time (sec) Speed (m/sec)

1
9.8
2
19.6
3
29.4
4
39.2
6
58.8
8
78.4
10
98

Acceleration is same for ALL OBJECTS,

regardless of mass!

120
100
80

Speed (m/sec)

60
40
20
0
0

Time (sec)

10

12

Newtons 2nd law force (F) is acting on

falling ball (mass = m)

Ball

m
F

All masses have same acceleration

. . . so more mass means more force
needed:

F m

Earth

Newtons 3rd law ball pulls on Earth

Ball

F
Does Earth accelerate?
F
Earth

UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

All bits of matter attract all other bits of matter . . .

M1

M2

1. F M1M 2
1
2. F 2
d
p. 92

Inverse square law

1. Increase one or both masses, and force increases.

2. Force decreases as distance increases.
M1

F
d

400 400
100 2
4
2

M2
Force
400 N
100 N
25 N
16 N
4N

Distance
10 m
20 m
40 m
50 m
100 m

Force Distance
400
10
178
15
100
20
44.4
30
25
40
16
50
11.1
60
8.2
70
6.25
80
4
100

Force

120

100

80

60

Force never becomes

zero.

40

20

0
0

100

200

300

Distance

400

500

Putting the two parts of the force law together . . .

GM1M 2
F
d2

(G = gravitational constant)

Acts through empty space

action at a distance
Explains how gravity behaves but not why

WEIGHT

p. 83

Weight
Measure of gravitational attraction of Earth
(or any other planet) for you.
m

M
F
R
Earth

Weight

GMm
WF
R2

Other planets: M and R change, so your

weight must change

A real planet . . .
Mars:

Weight

R = 0.53 x Earths radius

M = 0.11 x Earths mass
Earth
150 lbs

Mars
59 lbs

Weight can be
made to apparently
increase . . .

p. 83

upward acceleration

. . . or decrease!

9.8 m/s/s
Free-fall
downward
acceleration

Weightlessness

EARTHS MASS

Earths mass

your mass

GMm
W
2
R
your weight
Earths radius
M = 6 x 1024 kg

HOW DO THE PLANETS GO?

Planets appear
star-like

Planets move, relative to the stars.

Planets reside
near Ecliptic.

[SkyGlobe]

Aliens eye view . . .

Venus
Sun

Earth
Mars

Complicated!

Yet, patterns may be discerned . . .

Planets remain near ecliptic within Zodiac.

Brightness changes in a regular pattern.

Mercury & Venus always appear near Sun in sky.
Mars, Jupiter & Saturn may be near Sun, but neednt be.
Planets travel eastward relative to stars most of the time,
but sometimes they reverse direction & go west!

Jupiter & Venus

are currently
in
Gemini.

Ancient
Greek
geocentric
solar
system

Motionless Earth
* Earth too heavy to be moved
* If Earth moved, wouldnt we notice?
> Relative motion argument
> Parallax argument
Earth at center of Universe
* This is Earths natural place
> Heavy stuff sinks
* This is the natural place of humankind
> Were most important (?)

Ptolemy
(85 165 AD)

Results:

Planet-Earth distance changes

Planet sometimes goes backward

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 1543)

First modern
heliocentric (suncentered) model of
solar system
Founder of modern
astronomy
Not first astronomer!

Copernicus
heliocentric
model,
simplified

Galileo Galilei
1564 - 1642

Galileo observes
Jupiters
four largest moons

Telescopic
View

Allowed
possibility
that there
are many
centers of
motion
not just Earth.
Jupiters moons
in motion.

Venus shows a full set of phases

like the moons

Venus motion according to . . .

Ptolemy
(new & crescent phases)

Copernicus
(full set of phases)

ORBITS

NEWTON: Gravity explains how planets (and

moons & satellites & etc.) go.

Any motion controlled only by gravity is an orbit

Without gravity
With gravity

Sun

Several trajectories are possible. . .

Circle

Object is effectively
continuously falling
toward the sun . . .
. . . But never gets
there!

Imagine launching a
ball sideways near
Earth . . .

Possible trajectories:

Escape

Circle
Ellipse
Parabola
Hyperbola

Which one you get depends on speed (v)!

Trajectories are
conics

These are only

possible orbits for
inverse square
law force.

 Circles & Ellipses: Bound orbits

Parabolas & Hyperbolas: Escape orbits
v > 5 mi/sec
Escape:
v 7 mi/sec
v

Earth

v 5 mi/sec

KEPLERS LAWS

Johannes
Kepler
(1571 1630)

By the study of the orbit of Mars, we must either

arrive at the secrets of astronomy or forever remain
in ignorance of them.
- J. Kepler

Tycho Brahe

1. Planets move in elliptical orbits with the

sun at one focus
Sun (Focus)

Focus
Semi-major axis (a)

67,000 mi/hr

Aphelion

Perihelion

Earth: a = 1.00 AU = 92, 980.000 mi

aphelion = 1.0167 AU = 94,530,000 mi
perihelion = 0.9833 AU = 91,420,000 mi

Eccentricity (e): Measure of shape of ellipse

e = c/a

a = semi-major axis
c = dist center to focus
0 < e< 1

A few objects orbiting the sun . . . . . .

Earth
Mars
Pluto
Halleys Comet

1.0 AU
1.52
39.5
17.8

0.0167
0.0934
0.250
0.967

Semi-major axis, or mean distance

between planet & sun

2. A line drawn from planet to sun sweeps out

equal areas in equal times

2nd Law
Demo

3. The cube of the mean planet-sun distance

is
directly proportional to the square of the
planets orbit period
a3 = P2

a: AU
P: years

Or,
a3/ P2

=1

3rd Law
Demo

Solar System:
a
0.387
0.723
1
1.524
5.203
9.539
19.19
30.06
39.53

P2
0.058
0.378
1
3.538
140.7
867.8
7058
27156
61752

a3
P2/a3
0.058
1
0.378
1
1
1
3.538
1
140.8 0.999
867.9
1
7068 0.998
27165
1
61768
1

70000
60000

Square of period

P
Mercury 0.241
Venus
0.615
Earth
1
Mars
1.881
Jupiter
11.86
Saturn
29.46
Uranus
84.01
Neptune 164.8
Pluto
248.5

50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0

10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000

Cube of semi-major axis

Newton modified Keplers 3rd Law:

3

a
1 2
P
3

a
M m 2
P

m
M

units of the
Suns mass

SUNS MASS

Mass of the Sun

1 yr

1 AU

3
4
P
a
G(M m)
2

Suns Mass

Earths mass

M = 2 x 1030 kg 330,000 Earth masses (!)

CENTER OF MASS ORBITS

Finally (at last ) . . . the true story of orbits

We left something out . . . Yi
kes
!

Planet
Sun

Sun pulls on planet . . . planet pulls on sun

Sun moves a little, too!

Exaggerated view:

X = center of
both orbits

Circular orbits

X
P

Consider Jupiter & the Sun . . .

Center of Mass
X
0.0052 AU

5.2 AU

Suns motion is small!

Gravitational
Orbits
Animation

Earth & Moon:

X
2900 mi

235,500 mi

2900 mi < Earths radius!

Gravitational
Orbits
Animation

Discovery of Neptune

1846: Presence of Neptune predicted

from irregularities in Uranus orbit.
(J. C. Adams & U. J. J. Leverrier)

Neptune
Speeds up

Slows down

Uranus