Semiconductor Devices

Dr. Kristel Fobelets

Room 714
k.fobelets@imperial.ac.uk

Course overview

Aims of the course

Gives sufficient background knowledge into
semiconductor devices and technology to
understand state-of-the-art micro (nano)
electronics.
Gives an overview of the operation of new field
effect transistors which have recently left the
research lab or which are still being
investigated.

Contents: MOSFETs and beyond

Small gate lengths change characteristics in
unexpected ways
Short channel effects (SCE)
How to circumvent SCE using tricks?

Are there no other FET structures that can improve on

the MOSFET characteristics?

Other materials: GaAs based FETs

FETs based on more than 1 material: hetero-junctions
More than 1 gate e.g. the finFET
Nanowires with gates all around (see 4rd yr course)

What does the course involve?

Regular lectures 2hrs/week.
Summary notes main information (blue book)
Copy of powerpoint slides

1 Class in which the questions in the summary

notes will be solved.
Exam 4 questions out of 5
All info available on blackboard

Required background knowledge

1st year Electrical Engineering course on Semiconductor
devices (K. Fobelets)
2nd year Electrical Engineering course on Semiconductor
devices (K. Fobelets)
If not, please read the recommended textbooks on solid
state physics introduction, pn junction, MOSFET.
Understanding of basic MOSFET operation is essential.

Synopsis of the course

1)
2)
3)

Background and Ideal MOSFET review

Short channel effects in MOSFETs
Optimizing FET operation:
1) Schottky gating
2) Modulation doping
3) Introduction of strain

4)

FETs on SOI
1) Fully depleted
2) Partially depleted

5)
6)
7)

Alternative transistor structures: finFETs, nanowire

FETs,
Using semiconductors for bio-sensing
Using semiconductors for energy generation.

Short channel MOSFET

Revision of basic concepts

miconductors two types of free charged carriers exist: electrons and holes.

What are holes?

Si Si Si
+
Si Si Si Si

a) Spherical voids in a semiconductor

b) A positively charged Si atom that has lost its electron
Si Si
c) A positively charged particle that is the result of quantum mechanics
Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si

C
The two charged particles describe together the conduction in semiconductor

Electron e- with charge q=-e

and mass mn = m0 m*n
Hole h+

with charge q=+e

and mass mp = m0 m*p

Covalent bond

Intrinsic Si

Thermal energy: kT

Movement: kT

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Extrinsic Si

Extrinsic Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si B Si Si

Si As Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

NA

ND

Si

Obtained by doping

B
As

Intrinsic silicon (Si) has a small number of both free electrons and holes
such that ni=pi.
In order to increase the free carrier concentration, the semiconductor can
be doped. With donors ND more electrons are created, with acceptors NA
more holes are generated.
Q2: When intrinsic Si is doped with donor atoms, which of the following
a) n =
= ni =
statements
is p
correct?
pi
b) n > ni & p <
ni
c) n > p > ni
n: electron concentration
d) p > n > ni
p: hole concentration
ni: intrinsic electron concentration
pi: intrinsic hole concentration

B
n > ni & p < ni in an n-type semiconductor.

n-type semiconductor
n = ND
p = ni2/ND
p-type semiconductor
n = ni2/NA
p = NA
By

heart

The concept of majority carrier and minority carrier is important in

semiconductor devices. Majority carrier is the carrier type in a doped
semiconductor with the highest concentration. Minority carrier is the
carrier type with the lowest concentration.
Q3: True or False?
The holes are the majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor (doped with
acceptor atoms NA).

TRUE
p-type semiconductor
>
n
p
p
p
p-type
p-type
semiconductor
hole
electronsemiconductor
concentration
concentration
n-type semiconductor
>
n
p
n
n
n-type
n-type
semiconductor
electron semiconductor
hole
concentration
concentration

MAJORITY CARRIERS

MINORITY CARRIERS

Depletion

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si B Si Si

B Si Si Si Si

E
-

ND

p-Si

Capacitive effect

Capacitive effect

NA

B : boron atom ionised

n-Si

Si Si Si Si Si
Si As+ Si Si Si

+ Si Si Si Si
As
E
+

As : arsenic atom ionised

Si
B
As

The purpose of semiconducting devices is to generate a current/voltage

in response to an applied voltage/current. Two different types of current
can exist in a semiconductor: drift and diffusion current. The expression
of the total current that can flow in a semiconductor is given by the driftdn( x)
diffusion equation:
J n ( x) e n n( x ) E ( x) eDn

dx
dp( x)
J p ( x) e p p ( x) E ( x) eD p
dx

(1)

(2)

Q4: Which statement is true?

a) Term (1) is drift current and (2) diffusion current
b) Term (2) is drift current and (1) diffusion current
c) Only term (1) can exist in a semiconductor
d) Only term (2) can exist in a semiconductor

Drift current is proportional to the carrier concentration and the electric fi

Diffusion current is proportional to the carrier gradient.

E(x)
n(x)
p(x)

Jndrift
Jpdrift
Jndiff
Jpdiff

Motion of free charged carriers in a semiconductor.

Q5: If a p-type semiconductor at room temperature is conducting carriers
due to drift, which of the following motion paths would be followed by the
holes?
E
E
+
+
a)

c)

(b)

(d)

B
When carriers move in a semiconductor they are
scattered along the way. This means that they will be
accelerated by the electric field (in this case) and then
interact with atoms, impurities, other carriers that
makes them lose some of their kinetic energy =
scattering. Therefore the carriers will travel with an
average velocity in amplitude and direction.

Review
Energy band diagram of
semiconductor
What does an energy band diagram describe?
The total energy of the carrier within the lattice = KE + PE
E
Conduction band

Free electrons

Ec
Ev

Eg
k
Free holes
Valence band

In semiconductor devices the Energy band

diagram is simplified
The total electron
energy = KE + PE

Only electron potential

energy = PE is plotted

E
Conduction band

Ec

Ec
Ev

Conduction band

Eg
k
Valence band

+KE

Ev

Valence band

Eg

distance in device, x

Energy band diagram under electric field E

Ec = e- PE application of electric field will shift Ec at different
points in the semiconductor.
E

Ec

E
Ec
eA

KE

Eg

Ev

Eg
Ev

E=

x
E
0

Energy band diagrams: Ec, Ev, EF and EG (key components) are based on
the quantum mechanical description of the carriers in a semiconductor.
Energy band diagrams give a graphical method to estimate the amplitude
of conduction in semiconducting devices.
Q6: Sketch the energy band diagram, Ec, Ev, EF, EG of an n-type
semiconductor in the point (in k space) where the distance between
bottom of conduction band and top of valence band is minimum.

Ec
EF
Ei

Ev

Bottom of conduction band

EG Bandgap. No energy levels in this
energy region.
Intrinsic level. Is the position of the
Fermi level EF when the semiconductor
is intrinsic.
Top of valence band

Position of Fermi level is determined by the doping type and density

For n-type Si:
Ec E F
n N C exp

kT

N
N
Ec E F
exp
C C
kT
n
ND

NC
ND

Ec E F k T ln

Influence of an electric field on carrier

movement in the energy band diagram
Energy band diagram of a semiconductor
under an electric field
E(x)

Eg

Ec

e- opposite direction to
electric field.

Ev

h+ in direction of
electric field.

Applying a bias across the metalsemiconductor junction

Fermi level no longer constant
Apply bias change PE along junction
E
+

Ec

EF

V<0
Energy

Energy

V>0

eV

eV
EF

For a junction with 2 different

materials
For instance
metal-semiconductor
Si-SiGe
AlAs-GaAs
Start from the knowledge on workfunctions,
and the energy reference: the vacuum level,
Evac.

Evac

metal
Each material has a certain
electrical potentiale
thatmis
related to the energy of its
charged carriers. This
electrical potential for the
material is given by the work
function, . For each material
the work function is an
EF
energy related to a reference
The position of the Fermi
vacuum level, Evac.
level of each material is
defined by the work-function
Same for metal
with respect to the reference
vacuum level.

ep-Si

p-Si

EF

Bringing are
the NOT
materials
together
Materials
in contact

Evac
Change in relative electric potential

metal

ep-Si

p-Si

em
EF
EF
Need to align the Fermi levels via a re-distribution of carriers.
Electrons will diffuse from p-Si to metal until the Fermi levels are aligned.
This requires energy change in electric potential of one material with respect to the other.

Contact potential or built-in potential:

V0 m p Si

Junction is formed
junction

Evac

Contact potential or built-in potential:

e V0 e m p Si

Evac

metal
em
ep-Si

EF

p-Si

EF

Drawing the remainder of the energy band diagram.

junction

Evac

Contact potential or built-in potential:

e V0 e m p Si

Evac

metal
em
ep-Si

p-Si
Ec

EG
EF

EF
ConductionEvband Ec
Doping gives distance
between Ec and EF
Valence band Ev
EG gives distance
between Ec and Ev

Doing the same with alternative

explanation and using n-Si
1. The potential energy of the electrons Ec (holes, Ev) of
different semiconductors can be related to each-other via the
workfunction, of each material

Energy axis: E

Material 1
em1

Material 2

Evac

em2

EF1

Ec2
EF2
Ev2
metal

n-Si
Distance axis: x

Why do the bands bend?

2. Electrons and holes want to lower their energy if states
are available to move to (this is as long as EF1-EF2 0)
diffusion.

Energy axis: E

Material 1
eEF1

Material 2
Jndrift
Jndiff
Eint
e-

BUT

Ec2
EF2
Ev2

metal

n-Si

Itot=0
because
Vext=0

Jndrift
needs
electric field

Eint

Distance axis: x

When an electric field E appears then the

potential energy Ec, Ev, of the carriers changes.
3. Electron and hole diffuse (until EF1=EF2). Causes an
internal electric field (contact potential) that makes the same
amount of carriers drift back Itot=0.

Energy axis: E

Bands bend
eE-field points towards increasing Ec

Eint

Ec2
EF2

e-

EF1

Ev2
metal

n-Si
Distance axis: x

More electrons at interface in this

case.
4. Due to the diffusion of carriers (from metal to Si in this
case) there is an increase in electrons at the metal/Si
boundary.
Energy axis: E

Ec E F
n N C exp

kT

Ec E F

Ec2
EF2

EF1

Ev2
metal

n-Si
Distance axis: x

 Back to p-Si

Applying a voltage, Vext.

+

Contact potential or built-in potential:

Evac

e V(V0 0eVext) mepSim p Si Vext

Evac

metal
p-Si

Ec
EG
EF

eVext

EF
Ev

E0
Eext
Etot

Applying a voltage, Vext.

+

Different reference node

Evac

Evac

metal
p-Si

Ec
EG
EF

EF

eVext

Ev
E0
Eext
Etot

For a homojunction
same material different doping
e.g.
p-Si n-Si
p-GaAs n-GaAs p-GaAs
It is possible to start from the knowledge on
workfunctions, and the energy reference:
the vacuum level, Evac. The workfunction is
dependent on the doping concentration!

Evac

Evac

p-Si

en-Si

n-Si

ep-Si
EF
EF

Evac

Evac

p-Si

en-Si

n-Si

ep-Si
EF
EF

Depleted region on both sides

Evac

e V0 e p Si n Si

p-Si
Ec

EF

ep-Si
en-Si

n-Si

Ec
EF

Ev
Ev

Evac

For a homojunction
same material different doping
e.g.
p-Si n-Si
p-GaAs n-GaAs p-GaAs
If workfunctions, not given, then start from
V=0V and thus Fermi level EF constant.

Depleted region on both sides

p-Si
Ecp

EF

n-Si

e V0 e Ecp Ecn
Ecn
EF

Evp
Evn

Fermi-Dirac statistics + density of states imposes a variation

of the carrier concentration as a function of energy

Electron diffusion Electron drift

eV0
Ec
EF

Ev
Hole drift

Hole diffusion

Electron energy

p-type

Hole energy

n-type

Operation of MOSFET
Using energy band diagrams

MOSFET: VGS = VDS = 0

S

channel

n+
V0

n+
Ec

EF

Ev
V0: Potential barrier between supply of electrons from source into channel. The drift and
diffusion across this interface is equal and opposite no net current through.

Remember: No bias
Equilibrium imposes that drift is equal to diffusion
no net current across the potential barrier

Electron diffusion Electron drift

eV0
Ec
EF

Ev
Hole drift

Hole diffusion

Electron energy

channel

Hole energy

source

MOSFET: VGS = 0 ; VDS > 0

S

channel

n+
V0

n+
Ec
EF
Ev

Applying VDS has caused a voltage drop across the channel and channel-drain junction, but did
not change the barrier height V0 between source and channel. Thus no net current can flow
through that junction. (see previous slide)

In order to allow current, the

potential barrier between source and
channel needs to be lowered.
This is done by applying a positive
gate voltage

MOSFET: VGS>Vth 0 ; VDS > 0

S

channel

n+
V0
V0-Vsi

n+
Ec
EF
Ev

Applying VGS has caused a decrease of the potential barrier between the source and the
channel. Now the electrons in the source lying at a higher energy than the potential barrier V 0VSi will be able to diffuse across the source-channel barrier. Once the electrons are in the
channel region they drift due to VDS to the drain. A current is flowing.

No bias

Electron diffusion Electron drift

eV0
Ec
EF

Ev
Hole drift

Hole diffusion

Electron energy

channel

Hole energy

source

Remember: Forward bias

The potential barrier decreases and thus allows diffusion of
electrons into the channel

Electron diffusion

channel

Electron drift

E(V0-Vf)
Ec

Electron energy

source

Ev
Hole drift

Hole diffusion

Hole energy

EF

Currents: apply VDS

MOSFET material cross section low VDS
VGS>Vth

Linear region or triode region

for 1 VGS value

MOSFET schematic cross section VDS<VDsat

Non-linear current region.

Channel gets narrower near drain
Depletion region increases as reverse bias between
drain and bulk increases.

What happens at pinch-off?

The channel-drain junction is reverse
biased.
A depletion region exists between the
channel and the drain.

MOSFET: VGS>Vth 0 ; VDS VGS-Vth

S

no longer inverted

depleted

channel

n+
V0-Vsi

n+
Ec
Ec
Ev
Ev

EF
EF

Large part of the VDS will be dropped across the channel-drain depletion region = reverse
biased pn diode.
If VDS is increased, most of the extra voltage will be dropped across the channel-drain
depletion region.

MOSFET: VGS>Vth 0 ; VDS VGS-Vth

S

channel

n+

n+

V0-Vsi

Ec
EF
Ev
Negligible change in slope of potential energy Ec in channel
No change in source-channel barrier (controls carrier supply)
Thus current remains constant

Remember: Reverse bias

The current in reverse bias is limited by the availability of
minority carriers
Drain

Electron drift Electron diffusion

e(V0+Vr)
Ec
EF

Hole energy

Any extra is
made available
by source and
is controlled by
the source
channel
potential barrier

Electron energy

Channel

Ev
Hole diffusion

Hole drift

MOSFET schematic cross section VDS=VDsat

Constant current region.

Channel is pinched-off at drain because VDS=VGS-Vth
or VDG=Vth (onset of inversion at drain).

SATURATION

MOSFET schematic cross section VDS>VDsat

In ideal long channel device current remains constant after saturation.

The supply of carriers is controlled by source-gate voltage.

Gradual channel approximation

drift current only
Valid for
low longitudinal electric fields
strong inversion VGS>Vth

dV
I e n( x)
A
dx
e n( x) Cox VGS Vth V ( x)
I DS

CoxW

VGS Vth VDS

2
VDS

CoxW
VGS Vth VDS linear region
L
CoxW
VGS Vth 2 saturationregion

2L

lin
I DS

sat
I DS

Ideal n-channel enhancement mode

MOSFET characteristics
I DS
triode
IDS

Cox nW

VGS Vth VDS

VDS

saturation
VDS = VGS Vth
I DS

2
Cox nW VDS

2L

VGS

VDS

Output characteristics

Ideal n-channel enhancement mode

MOSFET characteristics
I DS

Cox nW

Transfer characteristics
in triode region

VGS Vth VDS

VDS

Transfer characteristics
in saturation region

IDS

IDS

VDS1

Cox nW VDS
VGS Vth
L
0 @ VGS Vth

I DS
I DS

Vth

VGS

Cox nW
2
VGS Vth
2L
0 @ VGS Vth

I DS
I DS

Vth

VGS

Conclusion
The simple description of currents in MOSFETs, the gradual channel
operation, only describes the drift component of the current. It ignores
the fact that n(x) 0 for VGS < Vth and that VDS can also have an impact
on the source-channel barrier.
These simplifications are acceptable when the channel length is long
and the channel is strongly inverted, but break down for short channel
lengths and when operating the MOSFET in the subthreshold regime.
Insight into this topic is give in: short channel effects in MOSFETs.

How to draw an energy band diagram?

E points into the direction of increasing potential energy
At metal-semiconductor contacts equilibrium is kept, n
& p = 0
Diffusion creates internal electric fields: E0 (Vext=0V)
Relative position of EF defined by workfunction

EF constant throughout structure when Vext=0V

Abrupt junctions
Eg of each material remains the same up to the junction
e- transfer from high E to low E