RESEARCH PROCESS

Research Process
The Research Problem
Formulation of Research Objectives
Review of Related Literature
Delimitation of the Research Problem
Formulation of Testable Hypothesis
Identification of Research Variables
Construction of Research Design
Designing Tools for Data Collection
Designing Plan for Data Analysis
Collection of Data
Data Processing
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Drawing Conclusions and
Recommendations
Writing of Research Report
Reporting of Research Findings

The Research Problem

Research Problem

S - pecific
M easurable
A chievable
R ealistic
T - imebound

Stating the Research Problem

Stating the Research Problem

Research problem must be stated in
a clear and complete grammatical
sentence in as few words as possible

Effects of pharmaceuticals on
fish embryo

 Do environmentally-relevant
concentrations of diclofenac in
freshwater systems exhibit
embryotoxic and stress protein (hsp
70) responses to zebrafish (Danio
rerio) embryos?

FORMULATION OF
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Reflect the questions whose answers
the investigator wants the study to
yield.
Can be expressed either in the form
of a statement or a question
Serve as the steering wheel in
the conduct of a research project.

 Serve as guides in specifying the

variables of the study, the choice of the
research design to be used, the data to
be collected, as well as the
interpretation of the results.

The study will determine the relationship

between sulfur dioxide levels and the rate
of photosynthesis among resistant species
of grasses.

Characteristics of Research
Objectives
Phrased clearly, unambiguously, and
specifically
Stated in measurable terms and
should not involve value judgment

Objective
to study diarrhea
to determine the role of infant
feeding in diarrhea
to compare the incidence of diarrhea
between bottle, breast-fed, and
mixed-fed infant

Objective
To study the effect of neem tree
extract

To investigate the histological effects

of neem seed kernel extract on
mouse testis

 General Objective: a generic statement

which describes in broad terms what the
study wishes to accomplish.
Specific Objectives: contain indicators
on how to accomplish the stated objectives
and therefore, gives direction to the
research process; identifies in detail and
measureable terms the aims of the
research study.

HOW DO YOU FORMULATE

YOUR OBJECTIVES?
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
summarize what is to be achieved
by the study.
should be closely related to the
research question.
EXAMPLE:
Problem: low utilization of child
protection units (CPUs)
General Objective: to identify the
reasons for this low utilization

HOW DO YOU FORMULATE YOUR

OBJECTIVES?
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE
smaller, logically connected parts of
a general objective
should systematically address the
various aspects (dimensions) of
the general objective
should specify what you will do in
your study, where and for what
purpose.

General Objectives:
To investigate the histological effects of neem
seed kernel extract on mouse testis
Specific Objectives:
1. To identify the changes in testes histology due
to neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) exposure.
2. To determine the relationship between neem
seed kernel extract (NSKE) and occurrence of
abnormal sperm morphology.
3. To provide a feasible physiological basis for
the anti-libido property of neem extract.

Objective
General objective
1. To document plants used by Aeta as
repellents against hematophagous insects
Specific objective
1. To identify plants used by Aeta as
repellents against hematophagous insects
2. To determine which parts of the plants are
used for such purpose
3. To determine the mode of application and
frequency of use of these plants

SAMPLE OBJECTIVES
GENERAL: To evaluate if home-based care (CHBC)
projects in Zimbabwe provide adequate, affordable
and sustainable care of good quality to people with
HIV/AIDS, and to identify ways in which these
services can be improved
SPECIFIC
To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial,
health/nursing care and other needs of patients and their
families affected by AIDS.
To determine the extent to which formal and informal support
systems address these needs from the viewpoint of service
providers as well as patients.
To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient and
family as well as to the formal CHBC programmes themselves.
To relate the calculated costs to the quality of care provided

PICKING THE RIGHT WORDS

Clearly phrased in operational terms
Use action verbs
Examples:
explain, apply, predict, identify, employ,
evaluate, describe, illustrate, defend,
integrate, use, assess, contrast, interpret,
distinguish, sort, categorize, diagram,
solve, formulate, report, relate, organize,
restate, recall, prepare, review, list,
arrange, classify, name, construct,
translate, recognize, create, determine

WORDS TO AVOID
To know
To understand
To really understand
To fully appreciate
To internalize
To grasp the significance of
To have an awareness of

FORMULATION OF TESTABLE
HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis Definition
A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or
events which have occurred or will occur
(Gay,1976)
States the researchers expectations concerning
the relationship between two or more variables in
the research problem
Testable statement of a potential relationship
between two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)

Characteristics of a Good
Hypothesis
Stated in declarative form
Stated in definite terms, the
relationship between variables
Should reflect the theory or literature
that it is based on
Should be brief and to the point
Should be testable.

Two Types of Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis
Ho
Never true or established but can be possibly
disproved in the course of the experimentation
Always a statement of _____________
No difference relationship between the variables
we want to study
May act as a starting point and as a benchmark
against which the researcher will measure the
actual outcome of the study once the researcher
has collected the data.

Research Hypothesis
HA
Alternative hypothesis
Relationship is always positive
Statement of ______________.

 Examples:
Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal
lagging.
HA : Vitamin C does inhibit chromosomal
lagging by 50% compared to placebo.

Ho : Cerebral artery bypass is as effective as

standard medical therapy
HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective
than standard medical therapy.

 Two Types of Research

Hypothesis
Non-directional reflects a difference
between groups, but the direction of the
difference (unequal) is NOT specified.
Directional reflects a difference
between groups and the difference is
specified.

IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH
VARIABLES
Variable any trait/characteristic
that manifest differences irrespective
of whether the differences are
qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative eye color, shape of
teeth, sex
Quantitative weight, height, length,
light intensity, temperature

Types of Variables:
Independent the treatment variable
- _________ in the course of an experiment in an effort
to understand the effects of this manipulation on some
outcome (which you
know as the dependent variable)
- the variable which is presumed to cause,
effect, influence, or stimulate the outcome.

Dependent outcome variables in a research study

- refers to the outcome or response variable

Extraneous Variable by themselves produce changes which

may be mistaken to be the effect of the
independent
variable being considered.
- Controlled, held constant or randomized so the
effects are neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all