WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY?

Physiology is the study of the functions of

living organisms
Explores the mechanisms involved in
Birth
Growth
Survival (healthy and disease conditions)
Reproduction
Ageing and Death

A little bit of history of physiology

Socrates

c. 469 BC 399 BC
Hippocrates
c. 460 BC c. 370 BC
Plato
423 BC 347 BC
Aristotle
384 BC 322 BC
Galen of Pergamon (Galen)
129 c.200 AD
Ibn al-Nafis
1213 - ?
Leonardo da Vinci
1452 1519
Michelangelo
1475 1564
Andreas Vesalius
1514 1564
William Harvey
1578 1657

Fundamentals of
Physiology
Important principles that drive most of the
physiological processes
Concentration gradient
Pressure gradient
Electrochemical gradient
Conformational changes

Homeostasis
Homeostasis maintenance of nearly constant

conditions in the internal environment

Negative feedback loops
Positive feedback loops
In disease conditions, homeostasis is disturbed

or impaired (e.g. viral infection leading to high

fever)
Conversely, impairment in homeostasis results

in disease (e.g. complications resulting from

exposure to extreme heat or cold)

Every cell, tissue, organ and organ system is

involved in maintaining homeostasis

Body temperature
Blood pressure
Fluid and electrolyte balance
Acid-base balance
Blood gas concentrations
Hormonal balance

Homeostasis

Positive feedback loops

Mechanism that brings about an ever
greater change in the same direction
It has to have a cut-off point
Otherwise leads to a vicious
cycle and eventual death
Beneficial positive feedback loops
Blood clotting
Uterine contractions at child birth

Positive feedback is in itself part of a

negative feedback loop

From Text book of Medical Physiology 11th Ed,

Guyton & Hall, 2006

Body Fluid Compartments

The maintenance of a relatively constant volume

and a stable composition of the body fluids is

essential for homeostasis
Fluid intake and output are balanced during

steady-state conditions

From Text Book of Human Physiology, Guyton, 2006

Intracellular 2/3rd
Extracellular 1/3rd
Interstitial fluid
(80%)
(tissue fluid)

Blood plasma (20%)

Transcellular
Synovial
Peritoneal
Pericardial
Intraocular
Cerebrospinal

Major derivatives of the embryonic germ layers

Tissues
Tissue - an aggregation of similarly

specialized cells which together perform

certain special functions

Four primary tissues

Connective
Epithelial
Nervous
Muscle

Connective tissue
1. Develop from the embryonic mesoderm
2. A material made up of fibers forming a framework

and support structure for body tissues and organs

and surrounds many organs.
3. A tissue, usually of mesoblastic origin

(mesenchyme), that connects, supports, or

surrounds other tissues, organs, etc.

Functions of
CT
Connection of body tissues (cohesion)
Binds organs together, hold organs in place, cushions them,

fills space.
Provides structural framework for the body
Storehouse of salts, minerals and fats (energy)
Major contributor to the homeostatic mechanisms of the

body
Protection of organs, repair from injuries

Connective tissues
Collagen Type I fibers

Collagen Type I and elastin fibers

Collagen Type III fibers - branched

Courtesy
Color atlas of cytology, histology and microscopic anatomy (Kuehnel W. 2002)

Elastic fibers
Elastic fibers - Aorta

Reticular FibersThyroid Gland

Reticular fibers - Amnion

Courtesy
Color atlas of cytology, histology and microscopic anatomy (Kuehnel W. 2002)

Elastic fibers - Auricle

Reticular fibers

Ehlers Danlos Syndrome

Caused by a defect in the structure, production, or processing

of collagen or proteins that interact with collagen, such as
mutations in the COL5A or COL3A genes

Epithelial tissue
Definition:
Membranous tissue covering internal organs and other

internal surfaces of the body

Sits over connective tissues (Epi-thelial or upon

tissue)
Two types of epithelial tissue
Lining epithelium
Glandular epithelium

Functions Barrier, protection, secretion, selective absorption,

trans-cellular transport.
They are avascular, but innervated
Nutrients diffuse
Connective tissue
cells

Basement membrane

Epithelial

Types of Epithelial cells

Single-Layered Squamous
Epithelium Posterior
Epithelium of the Cornea

Single-Layered Squamous
EpitheliumPeritoneum
Serosa

Single-Layered Cuboidal
Epithelium Renal Papilla

Columnar epithelium
Intestines

Courtesy
Color atlas of cytology, histology and microscopic anatomy (Kuehnel W. 2002)

MicrovilliUterus

Kinocilia Uterus

Transitional EpitheliumUrothelium
Urinary Bladder

Courtesy
Color atlas of cytology, histology and microscopic anatomy (Kuehnel W. 2002)

Epidermolysis Bullosa

Skin that is so fragile that it tears or blisters as a result of a

minor bump, stumble, or even friction from clothing.

Nervous Tissue
Definition:
The material that makes up the brain, spinal cord
and network of nerves around the body.

Nervous Tissue is:

Specialized for the generation
and conduction of electrical
impulses
Composed of specialized nerve
cells called neurons
Functions alongside supporting
cells
Glial cells (CNS)
Schwann cells (PNS)
Oligodendrocytes (or oligodendroglia)
Astrocytes (or astroglia)

Monitors sensory input, and

integrates it to control body

functions such as motility,
homeostasis, mental activity etc.

Rett Syndrome

Rett syndrome (RTT), originally termed cerebroatrophic hyperammonemia, is a rare

genetic postnatal neurological disorder of the grey matter of the brain that almost
exclusively affects females.

Muscle
Tissue
Definition:
The substance of muscle, consisting of muscle
fibers, muscle cells, connective tissue, and
extracellular material.
A tissue composed of fibers capable of
contracting to effect bodily movement.
An extremely elastic, vascular connective tissue
that can shorten or elongate to effect movement

Muscle Tissue - Three types

Skeletal
Striated
Multinucleated
Voluntary movements.

Smooth

No striations

One nucleus per cell

Cannot be controlled voluntarily.

Cardiac
Only found in heart
Striated
One nucleus per cell.
Short, branched, and interconnected to form a continuous fabric.
Contains intercalated discs that couple adjacent cells mechanically

and electrically.
Stimulation of one myocardial cell results in stimulation of all other
cells (wholehearted contraction).

Striated Muscle

Cardiac Muscle - Left Ventricle

Smooth Muscle Radial artery

Branching and microvasculature in cardiac

muscle

Courtesy
Color atlas of cytology, histology and microscopic anatomy (Kuehnel W.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a recessive X-linked form of muscular dystrophy,

which results in muscle degeneration and premature death. The disorder is caused by a
mutation in the gene dystrophin, located on the human X chromosome, which codes for
the protein dystrophin. Dystrophin is an important component within muscle tissue that
provides structural stability to the dystroglycan complex (DGC) of the cell membrane.
While both sexes can carry the mutation, females are rarely affected.

Cell Membranes and

Transport of molecules across
cell membranes

Diffusion

n is the spontaneous passive movement

e, it is a net movement of molecules in and out of the cell across the cell membr
concentration gradient.

Simple Diffusion - Gases

Passive transport
Movement of non-polar
molecules across the lipid
bilayer by simple diffusion
Movement of inorganic
molecules and water through
channel proteins by simple
diffusion
Facilitated diffusion of small
organic molecules facilitated by
carrier proteins

Diffusion gated
Channels
Charged ions such as Na+

and K+ cannot cross

plasma membrane
Ion channels that span
membranes allow passage
of molecules
Some ion channels are
always open
Some ion channels are
gated (voltage gated
and ligand gated) such
that the gates open and
close in response to
particular stimulus

Facilitated Diffusion
Net movement from higher to lower

concentration
No ATP requirement
Carrier mediated, e.g., glucose
transport into cells
In the unstimulated state, the carrier
protein inside vesicles
For eg., GLUT4 carrier in skeletal
muscle fuse with the plasma
membrane during exercise and insulin
simulation, inserting the carriers into
the membrane allowing passage of
glucose

Active Transport
Movement of molecules against a concentration

gradient.
Requires ATP
E.g., epithelial lining of small intestines, kidney
Two types of active transport
Primary active transport
Secondary active transport (coupled transport)

Primary active transport

Occurs when hydrolysis of ATP is directly
responsible for function of carriers., e.g. Ca ++
pump, Na+/K+ pump
These pumps are usually ATPase enzymes

Secondary active transport (coupled transport)

The energy required for movement of one molecule is

derived from the movement of another molecule.

Co-transport (symport) - if the two molecules move in
same direction. Eg., co-transport of Na+ and glucose
from intestinal lumen across the epithelial cells
Counter transport - if the two molecules move in the
opposite direction

Rate of diffusion
Rate of diffusion is affected by
The magnitude of concentration differences across

the membrane
Permeability of membrane to the diffusing substance
Temperature of the solution
Surface area of the membrane
Thickness of the membrane

Osmosis
Osmosis is the net

diffusion of solutions or
solvents across a
membrane
The membrane must be
selectively permeable
Two conditions
Solute concentrations

must be different across

the membrane
Membrane must be

relatively impermeable
to the solute

 Solutes unable to cross a

membrane and promotes

osmotic movement of water are
said to be osmotically active
Osmosis could be prevented by

an equal and opposing force

(plant cell walls)
Osmotic pressure is the

measure of force required to

stop osmosis.
Greater the solute

concentration, greater the

osmotic pressure

Molality
The amount of solute (moles), divided by the

mass of the solvent (weight) (not the volume),

represented as mol/kg
The ratio of solute to water molecules is of
critical importance in osmosis
Therefore, molality is a more desirable
measurement of concentration for body fluids

Osmolality
Osmolality is the total molality of a solution

(osmoles of solute per kilogram of solvent)

1 mole glucose + 1 mole fructose in 1 kg of
water
= 2 osmoles of solutes/kg
For solutes such as NaCl that ionize when
dissolved in water, 1 mole of NaCl will ionize to 1
mole Na+ and 1 mole Cl- for a total of 2 osmoles
of NaCl/kg water

Regulation of
Blood Osmolality
Maintenance of plasma

osmolality within 1-3% is

vital for homeostasis
Dehydration due to

strenuous exercise,
increased salt intake etc.
can increase osmolality
Drinking excessive water

reduces osmolality

Tonicity

Isotonic
Hypotonic
Hypertonic