Lecture - 3 Design Loads

N-W.F.P.
University of
Engineering and Technology
Peshawar
Lecture 03: Design Loads
By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

chairciv@nwfpuet.edu.pk
Topics to be Addressed
Types of loads
Wind Load
Earthquake Load
Load Combinations
CE-409: Lecture 03
Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan
Feeling Responsibility
CE-409: Lecture 03
Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
Types of Loads
Determination of loads for which a given structure
may be designed for is a difficult problem.
Questions to be Answered:
What loads may structure be called upon during
its lifetime?
In what combinations these loads occur?
The probability that a specific live load be
exceeded at some time during lifetime of
structure?
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
Design load should be rational such that considering 150mph

wind load for a tower is reasonable but not the load of a tank on
top of the tower.
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Types of Loads
Three broad categories:
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Environmental load
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
1. Dead load
Dead Loads consist of the weight of all
materials and fixed equipment
incorporated into the building or other
structure. (UBC Section 1602)
Weight
of structure
Weight of permanent machinery etc.
Dead loads can be reasonably estimated if the
member dimensions and material densities are
known.
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
2. Live load:
Live loads are those loads produced by the
use and occupancy of the building or other
structure and do not include dead load,
construction load, or environmental loads.
Weight of people, furniture, machinery,
goods in building.
Weight of traffic on bridge
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Types of Loads
2. Live load:
Buildings serve such diverse purposes that it is

extremely difficult to estimate suitable design
loads.
Different building codes specify live load
requirements.
Uniform Building Code (UBC)
Southern Standard Building Code
BOCA National Building Code
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
2. Live load: (UBC Table 16-A)
Live loads for various occupancies
Occupancy
Live load,psf
Residential
40
Libraries(reading room)
60
Mercantile
75-125
Heavy manufacturing
125-150
Light storage
120-125
Heavy storage
250 minimum
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10
Types of Loads
2. Live load:
The 40psf L.L specified by code for Residential Buildings is too

Conservative to account for the uncertainties in structural actions
Such as impact, fatigue, temp. effects etc.
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Types of loads
3. Environmental Loads
Environmental loads include wind load,
snow load, rain load, earthquake load,
and flood load.
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Live load reduction

The Uniform building code and BOCA National
building code permit reduction in basic design live
load on any member supporting more than 150ft2
R = r(A-150)
Or
Where
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R = 23.1(1+D/L)
R = reduction, percent
r
= rate of reduction = 0.08% for floors
A = area supported by floor or member
D = dead load, psf
L = basic live load,psf
13
Wind load
Bernoullis equation for stream flow is used to
determine local pressure at stagnation point,
considering air to be non-viscous &
incompressible.
q = (v2/2)
q: pressure
: mass density of air
v: velocity
This pressure is called velocity pressure, dynamic pressure,

stagnation pressure.
This equation is based on steady flow.
It does not account for dynamic effects of gusts or dynamic
response of body.
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14
Wind load
Resultant wind pressure on body depends upon
pattern of flow around it.
Pressure vary from point to point on surface,
which depends on shape & size of body.
Resultant wind pressure is expressed as:
PD = CDA(v2/2)
PL= CLA(v2/2)
CD : Drag coefficient
CL : Lift coefficient
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15
Wind load
For buildings bridges and the like pressure is
expressed in terms of Shape Factor CS (pressure
coefficient)
P = CSq = CS(v2/2)
Air at 15C weighs 0.0765pcf
P=0.00256CSV2
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V: mph
16
Wind load
Measured wind velocities are averages of
fluctuating velocities encountered during a finite
time.
In US average of velocities recorded during the
time it takes a horizontal column of air 1 mile long
to pass a fixed point.
Fastest mile is highest velocity in 1 day.
Annual extreme mile is the largest of the daily
maximums.
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Wind load
Wind pressure to be used in design should be
based on a wind velocity having a specific
mean recurrence interval.
The flow of air close to ground is slowed by
surface roughness, which depends on density,
size and height of buildings, trees, vegetation
etc.
Velocity at 33ft (UBC: Sec 1616) above ground
is used as the basic values for design purpose.
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Wind load
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Wind load
Shape factor varies considerably with proportion of
structure & horizontal angle of incidence of the wind.
CS for windward face of flat roofed rectangular building is 0.9
CS for negative pressure on rear face varies from -0.3 to -0.6
For such building resultant pressure be determined by shape
factor 1.2 to 1.5
Commonly used is 1.3
CS for Side walls -0.4 to 0.8
CS for roof 0.5 to 0.8
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21
Wind load
Wind forces on trussed structures e.g. bridges, transmission
towers, beam bridges, girder bridges etc. difficult to assess
because of leeward parts of structure.
Recommended coefficients for walls of buildings,
gabled roofs, arched roofs, roofs over unenclosed
structures(stadium), chimneys, tanks, signs,
transmission towers etc. are given in ASCE 7-02
Wind pressures specified by building codes include
allowance for gust and shape factors.
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Wind load
Pressure acts on the windward face of the building

Suction acts on the leeward face of the building
Suction acts on the sides of the building so a person
standing in The window may be thrown outside
Suction acts on the floor so that GI sheet floors are
blown away During strong wind storms
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23
Wind load
The revolving restaurant supported by a concrete column will

Experience suction which will cause tension in the column and as
Concrete is weak in tension so it may crack. As a result the lateral
Wind load may collapse the restaurant.
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Wind load
AASHTO specification for Bridge Truss

The pressure face is taken as a solid without openings
and suction on the leeward face is neglected (its still quiet
Conservative)
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Wind Pressure UBC 97

Design Wind Pressure:
P CeCqqsIw
UBC (20-1)
Ce: combined height, exposure and gust factor (Table 16-G)

Cq (or Cs): Pressure coefficient for the structure or portion of
structure under consideration (Table 16-H)
qs : wind stagnation pressure at the standard height of
33ft (Table 16-F)
Iw: importance factor (Table 16-k)
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Wind Load Example

Example: Calculate the wind pressure exerted by a wind
blowing at 100mph on the civil engineering department old
building.
Sol: According the formula given above:
P=0.00256CSV2
V: mph
For windward face: Cs = .8 inward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

For Leeward face: Cs = .5 outward (UBC97 Table 16-H)
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Wind Load Example

P=0.00256CSV2
Pwindward = 20.48 psf

Pleeward = 12.80 psf
Ptotal
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= 33.28 psf
28
Wind Load Example

Alternate Method:
P CeCqqsIw
UBC (20-1)
Ce = 0.76 ( For 30ft height & Exposure B, Table 16-G)

Cq = 0.8 ( For windward wall, Table 16-H)
= 0.5 ( For leeward wall, Table 16-H)
qs = 25.6 psf (For 100mph velocity, Table 16-F)
Iw = 1.0 (According to occupancy category, Table16-K)
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Wind Load Example
P CeCqqsIw
Pwindward = 15.56 psf
Pleeward = 9.73 psf
Ptotal
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= 25.29 psf
30
Wind Load Example
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31
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Earthquake loads are necessary to
consider in earthquake prone regions.
Earthquake waves are of two types:
Body
waves
Surface
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waves
32
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Body waves consists of P-waves & S-waves
These waves cause the ground beneath the structure to

move back and forth and impart accelerations into
the base of structure.
Period and intensity of these acceleration pulses
change rapidly & their magnitude vary from small
values to more than that of gravity.
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Body waves reach the

buildings first, followed by
the more Dangerous
surface waves
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A linear increase in magnitude

of EQ causes approximately cubic
increase in the corresponding
amount of energy released
35
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Shallow EQ of depth, say, 15-20km are far more dangerous than

deep EQ of depth, say, 150-200km.
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Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures
Structure response to an earthquake primarily
depends upon:
Mass
stiffness
natural period of vibration
damping characteristics of structure
location from epicenter
topography & geological formation.
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Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures
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Earthquake Load
Response Modification
Factor
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Earthquake Load
Response Modification
Factor
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Earthquake Load
Natural Time period of structures
EQ generally have short periods which may match the natural

period of the low rise buildings, say 10 to 20 stories which causes
resonance results in serious damages. The possibility of
resonance for high rise buildings is low due to longer time periods.
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41
Earthquake Load UBC 97

According to UBC 97 design base shear :
V = CVIW/RT
V = total base shear
CV = Seismic coefficient
I = Importance factor
W = Total seismic dead load
R = Response factor depends on type of structural system
T =Elastic fundamental period of vibration.
CE-409: Lecture 03
42

The coefficient I has assigned values of 1.0
to 1.25, depending on building use.
Cv is obtained from table whose value
depends on seismic zone and type of soil
on which a structure is build.
T = Ct hn
Ct = 0.035 for steel moment resisting frame
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43

Total force shall be distributed over height in the
following manner:
V=Ft + Fx
Concentrated force Ft at top shall determined by:
Ft = 0.07 T V
Ft need not exceed 0.25V and may be taken as 0 if T is 0.7 or
less.
Force Fx at each level including level n:
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Distribution of EQ Load
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Mean Return Period

The average Time Period (in years) based on
geological and historical records in which there is a
good statistical probability that an earthquake of a
certain magnitude or a hurricane will recur is called
Mean Return Period or Recurrence Interval R.
Probability of Exceedence of the event in any one year

is the inverse of the Mean Return Period = 1/R
Probability that an event will be exceeded at least once in
the n years is
Pn= 1-( 1-1/R)n
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46
Mean Return Period
Considering 150mph with a return period of, say, 100years

is Reasonable as compared to 500mph with a return period of,
say, 1000 years.
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47
Mean Return Period

Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an windstorm of
150mph is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will
encounter an windstorm exceeding 150mph during its life is?
P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%
There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be
exposed to a windstorm exceeding 150mph.
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Mean Return Period

Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an earthquake
of 0.4g is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will encounter
an earthquake exceeding 0.4g during its life is?
P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%
There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be exposed
to an earthquake exceeding 0.4g
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Mean Return Period

Uniform Building Code specifies that the earthquake for
which a building has to be designed should correspond to an
earthquake with a return period of 475 years.
Assuming that a building has service life of 50 years. The
probability that it will experience and earthquake of mean
return period 475 in its design life would be:
P50=1 - ( 1 - 1/475)50
=1- 0.90
= 0.01 or 10%
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Impact Load
Spring Example
It is customary to express Impact load as
percentage of static force.
Effect of impact load is taken into account in
calculation of loads.
If impact is 25 %, Live load is multiplied by 1.25
According to AISC live load on hangers
supporting floor and balcony construction should
be increased by one-third for impact.
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Load Combinations
ASD Load combinations
1. 1.0D + 1.0L
2. 0.75D + 0.75L + 0.75W
3. 0.75D + 0.75L + 0.75E
D = dead load
L = Live load
W = Wind load
E = Earthquake load
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Load Combinations
ASD Load combinations
You can use following load combinations with the
parameter ALSTRINC (Allowable Strength
Increase) to account for the 1/3 allowable
increase for the wind and seismic load
1. 1.0D + 1.0L
2. 1.0D + 1.0L + 1.0W
3. 1.0D + 1.0L + 1.0E
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Load Combinations
LRFD Load Combinations
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D +1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D (1.3W or 1.0E
D
= Dead load
Lr =
L = Live load
Roof Live Load
= Snow Load
= Rain Water or Ice
CE-409: Lecture 03
W = Wind load
E
= Earthquake load
54
Load Combinations
Why only Dead load in equation (1) ?
There may be a significant live load on a

structure during construction.
Moreover, the structure may have not
reached its full 28 days strength as further
construction is usually carried out .
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Load Combinations
Example: increase in dead load on the ground floor due bricks

lying on the roof for the construction of the first floor
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Load Combinations
Why negative sign in equation (6) ?
It accounts for the stability of structures due

to lateral loadings.
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Load Combinations
The stabilizing effect of gravity is reduced and the destabilizing

effect of lateral load due to wind or earthquake is increased to
have the worse situation
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Load Combinations
Example: Roof beams W16X31, spaced 7ft-0in center-to-center,
support a superimposed dead load of 40 psf. Code specified roof
loads are 30 psf downward (due to roof live load, snow, or rain)
and 20 psf upward or downward (due to wind). Determine the
critical loading for LRFD.
D = 31 plf + 40 psf X 7.0 ft = 311 plf
L=0
(Lr or S or R) = 30 psf X 7.0 ft = 210 plf
W = 20 psf X 7.0 ft = 140 plf
E=0
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59
Load Combinations
1) 1.4D
1.4(311 plf) = 435 plf
2) 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2(311 plf) + 0 + 0.5(210 plf) = 478 plf
3) 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
1.2(311 plf) + 1.6 (210 plf) +0.8(140 plf) = 821 plf
4) 1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2(311 plf) + 1.3(140 plf) + 0 +0.5(210 plf) = 660 plf
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Load Combinations
5) 1.2D 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
1.2(311 plf) + 0 + 0 + 0.2(210 plf) = 415 plf
6) 0.9D (1.3W or 1.0E)
a) 0.9 (311 plf) + 1.3 (140 plf) = 462 plf
b) 0.9(311 plf) - 1.3(140 plf) = 98 plf
The critical factored load combination for design is the third, with
a total factored load of 821 plf.
CE-409: Lecture 03
61
Thank You!
CE-409: Lecture 03
62

Lecture - 3 Design Loads

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N-W.F.P.

Lecture 03: Design Loads

By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Design load should be rational such that considering 150mph

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Buildings serve such diverse purposes that it is

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

The 40psf L.L specified by code for Residential Buildings is too

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Live load reduction

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

This pressure is called velocity pressure, dynamic pressure,

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Pressure acts on the windward face of the building

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

The revolving restaurant supported by a concrete column will

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

AASHTO specification for Bridge Truss

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Wind Pressure UBC 97

Ce: combined height, exposure and gust factor (Table 16-G)

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Wind Load Example

Sol: According the formula given above:

For windward face: Cs = .8 inward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Wind Load Example

Pwindward = 20.48 psf

Wind Load Example

Ce = 0.76 ( For 30ft height & Exposure B, Table 16-G)

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Wind Load Example

Wind Load Example

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

These waves cause the ground beneath the structure to

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan

Body waves reach the

A linear increase in magnitude

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Shallow EQ of depth, say, 15-20km are far more dangerous than

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

Natural Time period of structures