CHAPTER 2

2.0
Measurement of line parameters
It is essential to successfully measure electrical
quantities and other parameters in terms of
fundamental units, since it determines our
knowledge of that quantity. Line parameters are
basically:
resistance,
capacitance
and
inductance.
Other quantities can be derived from
these Basic Parameters mainly susceptance,
conductance,
admittance,
e.t.c.
other
fundamental electrical quantities are voltage
and current.
2.1

Measurement of Resistance
Resistance may be defined as long
medium and high depending on its value and
area of application. Generally:
i. Low resistance range: 0 - 1
e.g. Shunts, cables, armature, windings e.t.c.
ii. Medium Resistance range; 1-105
e.g. common electrical apparatus
iii. High Resistance: 103 and above
e.g. resistance of insulating materials and the

2.2. Measurement of Low Resistances.

Three methods are used.
i.

Ammeter / Voltmeter Method

ii. Potential meter Method

iii. Kelvin Double Bridge Method

2.21 Ammeter / Voltmeter Method

This measurement is performed by
measuring first the voltage across the
unknown resistance and then the current.
From the ratio v/1 the unknown resistance
can be obtained, however the accuracy of
this method depends on the accuracy of the
instrument used and their relative internal
impedance.
2.22 Potentiometer Method
This can be used to measure low resistance
provided a standard resistance of a
magnitude similar to the unknown and a
stable current supply are available. The
voltage across the unknown resistance. VA

Is first measured and then the voltage across the

known resistance VB is measured. Provided the
current magnitude is identical for both
measurement.
VA = RAI, VB = RBI
Thus: RA = VA RB
VB
2.23

Kelvin Double Bridge

This method is one of the best available for the

precise measurement of low resistance. It
eliminates the leads resistance error present in
the Wheatstone Bridge

From the figure, x is the load resistance to be

measured, s is a standard resistance. X is a low
resistance link connecting x and s. Q, q, M, m are
four known non-inductive resistances. Either M
and m, or Q and q are variable. G is a sensitive
detector.
Analysis
For analysis we transform the data arrangement
of resistances q, m and r into a star connection
below

From the transformation,

a = qr
q+m+r
b = qm
q+m+r
c = mr
q+m+r

The transformed bridge

When the bridge is balanced, no current flows
through G. therefore, from the Balanced
equation of a Wheatstone Bridge
Q=x+a
M s+c
X + A = Q (s+c) a
M
X = Q (s+c) a (1)
M
Substitute a, c in the above equation (1)
X=Q S+QCa
M
M
=Q S+Q
mr - qr
M
M q+m+r
q+m+r
X = QS + mr . Q mr . q
M q+m+r M q+m+r m
X = QS + mr
M q+m+r

Q q
M m

The term
mr
Qq
q+m+r M m can be made very small by

making the resistance of the link, r very small, and

making the ratio Q as close to q as possible
m
m
This can be achieved easily if m = M, q = Q
If this term is made negligibly small, then this
expression holds, i.e. x = Q . S
M
A possible source of error is the generation of
thermo e.m.f: To eliminate this, a
measurement should also be made with the
direction of the current reversed. The mean
value of these two readings will give a correct
value of x.
Range: 1.000 to 100 with an error of 0.1 to
0.01% (accuracy of KDB)

2.3 Medium Resistance

The method used to measure these are
i) Ammeter / voltmeter method
ii) Wheatstone Bridge

2.3.1

Ammeter/Voltmeter Method

The accuracy of this method is limited by those of

the ammeter and voltmeter used.

Assuming the resistance of the voltmeter (Rv) is

very high compared to the unknown resistance
(R), then:
R = voltmeter reading
ammeter reading
If Rv is not much higher than R, a considerable
error is introduced in the measurement. A
correction can be made as follows.
let: R = Unknown Resistance
Rm = measure value
I

= Ammeter Reading or current.

Rv is parallel to R; RvllR
Rm = RRv
R + Rv
RRv = Rm (R+Rv)
RRv RmR = RmRv
R = RmRv
Rv - Rm

2.3.2 Wheatstone Bridge

This is best for medium resistance
measurements

Simplified Bridge CCT

P and Q are 2 known fixed resistances, s is a

variable resistance and R, is unknown resistance
G is a sensitive detector S is adjusted until a
balance is obtained, this occurs when no current
flows through G. at balance, voltage at B equals
voltage D.
P

.V=R

P+Q

.V

R+S

P(R+S) = R (P+Q)
PR+PS = RP + RQ
R=P

.S

Q
Thus, R can be obtained in terms of P, Q and S. P
and Q are called the ratio arms. Wheatstone
bridge are normally constructed with about 4 or 5
coils of ratio arms which range in tens hundreds
and ten thousands
(x1, x 10, x 100, x 1000, x 10,000)
The variable arm airs then consists of 4 or
5decades of resistance coils.

2.3.2.1 Errors in Bridge Arms

The balance is obtained from the equation. The
accuracy measurement which can be obtained
with Wheatstone bridge is determined by the
errors in the value of the bridge arms.
Suppose the arms have small errors
+P, +Q, +S.
So that error in R = +R
R=PxS
Q
R + R = P + P. (S+ S)
Q + Q
Maximum error can be be obtained
Upper Limit
R + R = P + P (S+ S)
Q - Q
(R+ R) (Q - Q) = (P + P)(S + S)
RQ - RQ + QR - RQ
= PS + PS + SP + PS

Neglecting 2nd order quantities

QdR = RQ + PS + SP
Dividing through by RQ or PS
(RQ = PS)
QR = RQ +RS +SP
RQ

RQ

PS

PS

R = Q + S + P
R

Therefore, in percentages
I R x 100 = + P x 100 + S x 100 + Q x 100 2.1
R

Thus, if all the resistances at the given setting of the

bridge have small errors. The error in the unknown
resistance is the addition of the others in
accordance with equation 2.1
2.4

Measurement of High Resistance

The measurement of high resistance is very prone to

errors, because parallel leakage paths are difficult to
eliminate and the values obtained are affected by

magnitude of the applied voltage the

temperature of measurement, the humidity. A
high testing voltage is required in this
measurement to prove adequate sensitivity.in
this measurement, the resistance offered to
the flow of current along the surface of
insulating is comparable to the resistance to
be measured. Among high resistance to be
measurements the measurement of insulating
resistance of cables in of practical importance
and will be described here.
The method used for
insulation resistance are:
i.

measurement

Modified Wheatstone bridge

ii. Loss of charge method

iii. The meggar tester
Modified Wheatstone bridge

of

Let,
Applied voltage = Vo
Resistance of leakage path = R
P, Q, r are resistances such that
R>>r>>p>>Q
With the bridge at balance and 1-2 open circuit,
V1 = I, R, V2 =I2P
Now, V1 = V2
I, R = I2P
Thus R = r ; R=rP
P

RQ = rP
Now if the arm P is unbalanced by a small amount,
P, then
Thus,
V2 = I2 (P+P)
V12 = I, R I2 (P+P)

And; I2
I1 =

=
R+r
(R+r) + (P+Q+P)

.I

P+P+Q .I
(R+r) + (P+Q+P)

V12 =

(P+P+Q)R

.I (R+r)(P+P) .I

(R+r)+(P+P+Q)

(R+r)+(P+P+Q)

= I (PR + RP + RQ-RP-RP-Pr-rP)
(R+r) + (P+P+Q)
= I (RQ r (P+P)
R+r+P+P+Q)
NOTE: QR = rP
V12 =

I.P.r
P+Q+R+r+P

Total resistance of the bridge

(R+r) // (P+P+Q)
RT = (R+r)(P+P+Q)
R+r+P+P+Q
Vo = IRT

I=

Vo
R+rXP+P+Q
P+Q+R+r+P

Thus:
V12 =

P.r

.V(P+Q+R+r+P)

P+Q+R+r+ P

(R+r)(P+P+Q)

V12 =

VoP.r
PR+RP+RQ+rP+rP+rQ

RQ, rP, rP and rQ are much smaller than PR,

and therefore can be neglected:
V12 = Vo.r.P volts
RP
The applied voltage to the detector connected
between 1 and 2 is proportional to P/P in arm P
This can be used to measure resistances up to
100G
V12 = rP
Vo

RP

R = rVo P
V12 P

Electronic detectors are used to carry out the

measurement of such small quantities (as low as
O.1pA)

2.4.2

Loss of Charge Method

In this method, the insulation resistance to

be measured is connected in parallel with a resistor
and electrostatic capacitor. It is charged to a
certain voltage, and discharge through the resistor.
The terminal voltage is observed over a long period
of time by a stop watch.

Net E be the voltage to which the capacitor is

charged initially. R is the resistance to be
measured. The capacitor terminal voltage. V at
any time, t is given by
V = Ee-t/RC
Log V = log E t / RC
t

= log E log V

RC

log E/V

R=

t
Clog e E/V

If the resistance R is very high, the time taken for

an appreciate fall in voltage is also large. The
voltage vs time (V vs t) graph will be literally flat
and this could lead to serious error in calculating
and hence R
E
When R is large

More accurate results may be obtained by

measuring the change V in the voltage directly.

If this is measured and V = E - V

Then the value of R can be obtained from the
expression;
R=

t
C log e E
E- v

This method can be improved upon by

measuring the small voltage drop across R using
high gain electronic measuring instrument. The
instrument may be calibrated to indicate
resistance value directly.
2.4.3

The Meggar Tester

These are portable instruments of high
resistance measurement. The principles are
shown in the figure below.

Principles of Megar Tester (ohmmeter)

E and C in the fig. 2 coils fixed at right angle to
one another. M is a pivoted magnetic needle to
which a pointer is attached. S indicates our supply
voltage terminals. X is the resistance to be
measured and is connected to coil C. when
current flows through C and E their magnetic on
M, the magnetic field of E tends to turn the needle
in an anti-clockwise direction, while that of C in
the clockwise direction. The balance position of
The needle is such that these 2 turning moments
are equal. If the resistance X is very large (
)
the current in C approaching 0 (
0) the needle
will be set along the axis of coil E. If on the other
hand X is very small, the turning moments of C
will be much more than that of E and the needle
will set along the axis of C. the intermediate points
and 0 are obtained by calibration. The scale is
graduated in resistance values unusually in mega
ohm (MEG) M. Variation of the above are
found in commercial testers.

2.4.3.1 Meggar Tester for Cable Insulation

Resistance Measurement
Meggar is provided with three terminals
known as line, earth and guard terminals. The
line terminal is connected to the core of the
cable, the earth terminal to a plate immersed in
the water, or the tank side if suitable and the
guard terminal to the guard wire wound tightly
round the insulation. Rotating of handle at steady
speed then indicates the value of insulation
resistance of the cable by final position taken up
by the instrument pointer on its scale.
2.5

Unbalanced Bridges
Bridge ccts may be used in a balance or
unbalanced conditions. If unbalanced a small
change in one of the bridge arms produces a
large change in the detector signal, in this way the
signal at the galvanometer or the detector may be
used to indicate the deviation of an arm from a
specifies settings. This is useful in the
measurement of dynamic signal in which
insufficient time is available to achieve balance
conditions.

Bridge Circuit
The voltage across the detector is
VAC = E

R1
R1 + R2

R2
R2+R3

The thevenin equivalent of fig. 1 is obtained from

figure 2.

R1

R2

RTH
fig 2
RTH = R1R4 + R2R3
R1+R4 + R2R3

The current through the detector is

Lg =

VAC

where Rg is the

RTH +Rg

detector resistance

A modification of this arrangement is commonly

used in strain gauge transducers.
Quiz
1.

If Y = u + vw
x

Deduce Y from first principle

Y
Evaluate the max error y and relative error
y, where
Y
u = 5000 + 0.1%
v = 600 + 0.5%
w = 40 + 1.0%

x = 100 + 2.0%

2.
The four arms of wheatstone bridge have
the following resistances AB, 100, BC 10, CD
4, DA = 50 . A Galvano at 20 is connected
across BD. Calculate the current through the
galvanometer when a p.d of 10V is measured
across AC

2.6

A.C Bridges

Alternating current (a.c( circuits are

similar to the wheatstone bridge, but they are
used to measure inductance and capacitance, in
addition to resistance.

In fig. 2.3 the impedance are represented by

bridge quantities, Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4. The principle is
to obtain a balanced so that G gives a null reading
when
VAB

= VAD

In both magnitude and phase. Since no current

flows through the detector G at balance, then,
I1 Z1 = I2Z2
i.e. I1 = v
z1 + z3

And I2 = V
Z2+Z4
VZ1 = VZ2
Z1+Z3

Z2+Z4

Zi (Z2+Z4) = Z2 (Z 1 + Z2)
Z1Z2 + Z1Z4 = Z1Z2 + Z2Z3

Z1 = Z3
Z2 Z4
i.e |Z1| <1 = | Z3|< 3
|Z2|<2

|Z4|< 4

The condition to be satisfied are

|Z1| = |Z3|
|Z2|

|Z4|

And 1- 2 = 3 - 4
A solution may be obtained for any bridge by
rearranging these equations and separately
equating the real and imaginary parts.
Example of a. c. bridges are
i)

Maxwell bridge

ii) Heaviside
iii) Owen
iv) De sauty
v) Wien

2.6.1

Maxwell Bridge
(Measuring Inductance)

L1 is the self inductance to be measured. R1 is

the resistance of the inductance R21R3 and R4
are known resistances. C4 is a standard
capacitor Balance is obtained by varying C4 and
R4 at balance,
Z1 = Z2 or Z1 = Z3

Z1 = R2 + jwL1
Z2 = R2
Z3 = R4
Z4 = 1
1
R4+ jwC4
= R4
I+jwR 4C4
R1 + jwL1 = R2 1 + jwc4
R3

R4

R2 + jwR2C4

Equating real parts

R1 = R2
R3

R4

R1 = R2R3

R4

Note that L = jwL

C=I
jwc

j = -1

R=R
Equating imaginary parts
jwL1 = jwR2C4
R3
L1 = R2R3C4
The imaginary factors
Q = wL / R
Q = wL1 = wR2R3C4
R1 = R2R3 / R4
Q = wR4C4
W =2f
W =250

f=50HZ

2.6.2 Desauty Bridge (Measuring

Capacitance)

C1 is the capacitance to be measured. C2 is a

standard capacitor.
R1 and R2 are non-inductive resistor at balance,
R1

jwC1

R2

1
jwC2

C1 = R2 C2
R1
The balance is difficult to obtain in this bridge if
the capacitances have dielectric losses.

2.6.3

WIEN BRIDGE

C1 is the capacitance to be measured and it has

a shunt resistance R1. C2 is a standard air
capacitance. R2, R3 and R4 are non-inductive
resistors.
Balance is obtained by varying R2, R3
and R4
at balance
Z1 = Z3
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
Z 2 Z4

R3 R2 + 1

jwc2

= R4

1
1
R1

R2R3 + R3

= R4

jwC2

+ jwc1

R1
1 + jwC2

From the above,

R4 . C2
R3

C1 =

I + W2R22C22
R1 = R3 (I + W2 R22C22)
W2R2R4C22

NOTE: The heaviside bridges and owen bridges

are used for measuring R and L.

2.6.4

Schering Bridge
This is used for the measurement of
capacitance and dielectric loss, as well as power
factors in high voltage networks.

C1 is the capacitance to be measured C2 is a

standard capacitor. C4 is a variable capacitor.
R3, R4 are non inductive resistors. R1
represents the dielectric loss of C1.
at balance,
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3

Now,
Z1 = R1 + 1
jwc1
Z2 =

Z 3 = R3

jwc2
Z4 =

R4
I +jwC4R4

R1 +

R4

JwC1

I+jwR4C4

Equating real terms

R1 = C4 . R3
C2
Equating imaginary terms
I
jwC1

R3
jwC2R4

C1 = R4 . C2

= R3
jwC2

The capacitor loss angle is defined as

tan = WRC
For the circuit above
tan = WR1C1
= WC4 . R3 . R4 . C2
C2

R3

tan = WC4R4

2.7

Sources and Detectors

Power is usually supply as alternating current

(a.c) or direct current (d . c). For measurement of
high frequency the source of a.c. supply is usually
an oscillator whereas at power frequencies it is
the mains supply. A usual detector used at power
frequency is the vibration galvanometer (50
200Hz). At high frequencies (e.g. audio) we can
use the headphone (250Hz 4KHZ). The
vibration galvanometer is designed for various
frequencies but more commonly used below
200HZ a range at which it is very sensitive.

An example of the vibration galvanometer is

the moving coil galvanometer. The most
versatile of the detectors is the tunable
amplifier detector, it is used over a frequency
range of (10HZ 100KHZ)

2.8

Hall Effect Devices

When a current flows in a conductor which is lar

to a magnetic field. A p.d appears between the
edges of the material at L angle to the current and
the field as illustrated in fig 2.8

The hall voltage VH is more pronounced in semiconductor materials such as the germanium the
voltage is usually small but can be amplified and
measured. The hall voltage is given by
VH = KIB volts
Where B is the magnetic field density, K is the hall
coefficient of the material for a given current in a
material, VH is VHB; I.e hall voltage is
proportional to magnetic field density. Instruments
based on hall effect can be used to measure
constant or slowly varying magnetic field.
2.9

Voltmeters & Ammeters

Current and voltage are commonly

measured with ammeters and voltmeters.

Ammeters generally have a low resistance so

that when they are connected in series with the
cct it doesnt appreciably alter the current. The
VM on the otherhand is connected across the
pts the p.d. of which it has to be measure. It
must therefore have a high resistance so tha the
current taken by it is very small. In many
applications where the source impedance is
large, moving coil and moving iron instrument
have a disadvantage. Vms with electronics
amplifiers are used in such cases.

fig 2.9

2.9.1

Vacuum Tube Voltmeter (VTVM)

This can be used for both AC and Dc

measurements. It is particularly valuable
because of its high input impedance which

Makes it applicable which makes it applicable for

measurement of voltage in electronic circuits.
Various modification of the arrangement (fig 2.9)
are used depending on the range of voltage to be
measured. The main advantage of this VM is that it
does not load the cct to be measured due to its
high impedance. Instead of a vacuum amplifier the
instrument may be made of transistor stages with
field effect transistor (FET) input stage.

2.9.2

Digital Voltmeters

A digital voltmeter (DVM) converts a sample of an

unknown voltage into a digital quantity which is
then display in numerical form. The accuracy with
which the input voltage is measured depends
largely on the errors in the analogic to digital
conversion technic employed

Analogue
Quantity

Fig. 2.10

Sample

A/D
Converter

Digital Voltmeter

Readout