Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Mathematical Models of Systems
Objectives
We use quantitative mathematical models of physical systems to design and
analyze control systems. The dynamic behavior is generally described by
ordinary differential equations. We will consider a wide range of systems,
including mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical. Since most physical systems are
nonlinear, we will discuss linearization approximations, which allow us to use
Laplace transform methods.
We will then proceed to obtain the inputoutput relationship for components and
subsystems in the form of transfer functions. The transfer function blocks can be
organized into block diagrams or signal-flow graphs to graphically depict the
interconnections. Block diagrams (and signal-flow graphs) are very convenient
and natural tools for designing and analyzing complicated control systems
Illustrations
Introduction
Six Step Approach to Dynamic System Problems
Define the system and its components
Formulate the mathematical model and list the necessary
assumptions
Write the differential equations describing the model
Solve the equations for the desired output variables
Examine the solutions and the assumptions
If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system
Illustrations
Differential Equation of Physical Systems
Ta( t ) Ts( t)
Ta( t )
( t )
Ta( t )
Ts ( t )
s( t) a( t )
= through - variable
angular rate difference = across-variable
Illustrations

Electrical Inductance
Energy or Power
Describing Equation
v 21
d
L i
dt
v 21
1 d
F
k dt
1
2
L i
Translational Spring
1 F
2 k
21
1 d
T
k dt
1 T
2 k
P21
d
I Q
dt
Rotational Spring
Fluid Inertia
Illustrations
1
2
I Q

Electrical Capacitance
d
C v 21
dt
d
M v2
dt
d
J 2
dt
d
Cf P21
dt
d
Ct T2
dt
1
2
M v 21
Translational Mass
1
2
M v2
Rotational Mass
1
2
J 2
Fluid Capacitance
1
2
Cf P21
Thermal Capacitance
Illustrations
Ct T2

Electrical Resistance
v 21
b v 21
b v 21
b 21
b 21
v 21
Translational Damper
2
Rotational Damper
Fluid Resistance
P21
T21
Rf
1
Rf
P21
Thermal Resistance
Illustrations
1
Rt
1
Rt
T21
Illustrations
d
y ( t) b y ( t) k y ( t)
2
dt
dt
r( t)
v ( t)
1
d
C v ( t ) v ( t ) d t
R
L 0
dt
y( t)
Illustrations
K 1 e
1 t
r( t)
sin 1 t 1
Illustrations

K2 1
2 .5
y ( t ) K2 e
2 t
y1( t ) K2 e
2 10
2 2
sin 2 t 2
2 t
y2( t ) K2 e
2 t
1
y ( t)
y1( t )
y2( t )
4
t
Illustrations
Linear Approximations
Illustrations
Linear Approximations
Linear Systems - Necessary condition
Principle of Superposition
Property of Homogeneity
Taylor Series
http://www.maths.abdn.ac.uk/%7Eigc/tch/ma2001/notes/node46.html
Illustrations
Linear Approximations Example 2.1

M 200gm
g 9.8
m
s
L 100cm
0 0rad
15
16
T0 M g L sin 0
T1 M g L sin
T2 M g L cos 0 0 T0
10
T 1( )
T 2( )
10
Students are encouraged to investigate linear approximation accuracy for different values of 0
Illustrations
The Laplace Transform

Historical Perspective - Heavisides Operators
Origin of Operational Calculus (1887)
Illustrations
Historical Perspective - Heavisides Operators

Origin of Operational Calculus (1887)
d
dt
R L p
H( t)
H( t)
L p 1
Expanded in a power series
R L p
H( t )
L p
2
3
R
1
R
1
H( t)
.....

R L p L
2 L
3
p
p
R 1
R t

R t
t
..
R L
L
2 L 3
1
v = H(t)
1 du
Z( p )
Z( p )
1
2 2
3 3
R t
1
L
1 e
(*) Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude, Paul J. Nahin, IEEE Press 1987 .
Illustrations

Definition
L( f ( t ) )
f ( t) e
s t
dt
= F(s)
Here the complex frequency is
j w
The Laplace Transform exists when
Illustrations
f ( t) e
s t
dt
this means that the integral converges

Determine the Laplace transform for the functions
a)
for
f1( t) 1
F1( s )
s t
dt
b)
F2( s )
f2( t)
Illustrations
t0
1 ( s t )
e
s
1
s
( a t )
( a t ) ( s t )
dt
1
s1
[ ( s a) t ]
F2( s )
1
sa

Evaluate the laplace transform of the derivative of a function
d f ( t)
dt
by the use of
where
( s t )
d
f ( t) e
dt
dt
u dv
( s t )
dv
u v
v du
df ( t )
and, from which

s e
du
( s t )
dt
and
f ( t)
we obtain
u dv
f ( t) e
( s t )
= -f(0+) +
dt
f ( t) s e
f ( t) e
( s t )
( s t )
dt
dt
d f(t)
L
Illustrations
= sF(s) - f(0+) note that the initial condition is included in the transformation
Practical Example - Consider the circuit.

The KVL equation is
d
4 i( t ) 2 i( t )
dt
assume i(0+) = 5 A
Applying the Laplace Transform, we have
4 i( t) 2 d i( t) e ( s t ) d t 0
dt
0
4 I( s ) 2 ( s I( s ) i( 0) )
I( s )
5
s2
d t 2
4 I( s ) 2 s I( s ) 10
i( t ) e
( s t )
( s t )
d
i( t ) e
dt
dt
transforming back to the time domain, with our present knowledge of

Laplace transform, we may say that
t ( 0 0.01 2)
6
i( t) 5 e
( 2 t )
4
i( t )
2
0
Illustrations
1
t

The Partial-Fraction Expansion (or Heaviside expansion theorem)
Suppose that
F(s )
s z1
The partial fraction expansion indicates that F(s) consists of
( s p1 ) ( s p2 )
a sum of terms, each of which is a factor of the denominator.

The values of K1 and K2 are determined by combining the
individual fractions by means of the lowest common
denominator and comparing the resultant numerator
or
coefficients with those of the coefficients of the numerator
F(s )
K1
s p1
K2
before separation in different terms.
s p2
Evaluation of Ki in the manner just described requires the simultaneous solution of n equations.
An alternative method is to multiply both sides of the equation by (s + pi) then setting s= - pi, the
right-hand side is zero except for Ki so that
Ki
Illustrations
( s pi ) ( s z1 )
( s p1 ) ( s p2 )
s = - pi

Property
Time Domain
Frequency Domain
e
1. Time delay
( s T )
f ( t T) u ( t T)
1
2. Time scaling
3. Frequency
differentiation
4. Frequency shifting
5. Frequency
6. Initial-value
f ( at )
Integration
Theorem
( a t )
Illustrations
Theorem
F( s a)
f ( t)
Lim( f ( t ) )
F( s ) d s
f ( 0)
t -> 0
7. Final-value
d
F( s )
ds
t f ( t)
f ( t) e
F( s )
Lim( s F( s ) )
s -> infinite
Lim( f ( t ) )
Lim( s F( s ) )
t -> infinite
s -> 0

Useful Transform Pairs
Illustrations

Consider the mass-spring-damper system
Y( s )
( Ms b ) yo
equation 2.21
Ms bs k
y(s )
s1
s2
s b y
o
M
s2 b s k
s 2 n n
n n 1
s 2 n
k
M
k M
n n 1
Roots
Real
Real repeated
Imaginary (conjugates)
Complex (conjugates)
Illustrations
s1
n j n 1
s2
n j n 1
Illustrations
The Transfer Function of Linear Systems
V1( s )
V2( s )
Cs
V2( s )
V1( s )
Illustrations
Cs
I( s )
I( s )
Z2( s )
Z2( s )
Cs
Z1( s )
1
Cs
Z 1( s ) Z 2( s )
R
1
Cs

Example 2.2
d2
d
y ( t) 4 y( t) 3 y( t) 2 r( t)
2
dt
dt
Initial Conditions: Y( 0) 1
The partial fraction expansion yields:
d
y( 0)
dt
r( t)
The Laplace transform yields:
Since R(s)=1/s and y(0)=1, we obtain:

( s 4)
2
Y( s )
2
2
s 4s 3
s s 4s 3
Illustrations
3
2
( s 1)
1
2
( s 3)
( s 1)
1
3
2 R( s )
y( t)
3 e t 1 e 3 t 1e t 1 e 3 t 2
2

3
2
3
The steady-state response is:

lim y( t)
t
2
3
( s 3)
Therefore the transient response is:
s 2Y(s ) s y(0) 4(s Y(s ) y(0)) 3Y(s )
1 Y( s )
2
3
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Kf if
Tm
K1 Kf if( t ) ia( t )
field controled motor - Lapalce Transform
Vf( s )
K1 Kf Ia If( s )
Rf Lf s If( s )
Tm( s )
TL( s ) Td ( s )
TL( s )
J s ( s ) b s ( s )
Tm( s )
rearranging equations
TL( s )
Tm( s ) Td ( s )
Tm( s )
Km If( s )
If( s )
Illustrations
Vf ( s )
Rf Lf s
Td ( s )
(s )
Km
Vf( s )
s ( J s b ) Lf s Rf
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations

V 2( s )
V 1( s )
RCs
V 2( s )
V 1( s )
Illustrations
RCs
Illustrations
V 2( s )
R 2 R 1 C s 1
V 1( s )
R1
V 2( s )
R 1 C 1 s 1 R 2 C 2 s 1
V 1( s )
R 1 C 2 s
(s)
V f(s )
(s )
V a( s )
Illustrations
Km
s ( J s b ) L f s R f
Km
s R a L a s ( J s b ) K b K m

Km
(s)
s s 1
Vc( s )
J
( b m)
m = slope of linearized
torque-speed curve
(normally negative)
R R
c q
Vo( s )
s c 1 s q 1
Vc( s )
c
Lc
Lq
Rc
Rq
For the unloaded case:
id 0
c q
0.05s c 0.5s
V12
Illustrations
Vq
V34
Vd

Y( s )
X( s )
s ( Ms B)
A kx
K
B
kp
kx
g
dx
g ( x P)
kp
kp
b
d
dP
flow
A = area of piston
Gear Ratio = n = N1/N2

N2 L
Illustrations
N1 m
n m
n m

V2( s )
R2
R2
V1( s )
R1 R2
R2
max
ks 1( s ) 2( s )
V2( s )
ks error( s )
ks
Illustrations
V2( s )
Vbattery
max

V2( s )
Kt
Kt ( s )
Kt s ( s )
constant
V2( s )
ka
V1( s )
s 1
Ro = output resistance
Co = output capacitance
Ro Co
1s
and is often negligible

for controller amplifier
Illustrations

y ( t) xin( t)
xo( t)
Xo( s )
Xin( s )
b s k
M
M
For low frequency oscillations, where n

Xo j
Xin j
k
M
T( s )
q( s )
1
Ct s Q S
T
Ct
Q
S
Rt
q(s )
Illustrations
To Te = temperature difference due to thermal process

=
=
=
=
=
thermal capacitance
fluid flow rate = constant
specific heat of water
thermal resistance of insulation
rate of heat flow of heating element
converts radial motion to linear motion
Illustrations
Block Diagram Models
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Original Diagram
Equivalent Diagram
Original Diagram
Equivalent Diagram
Illustrations
Original Diagram
Equivalent Diagram
Original Diagram
Equivalent Diagram
Illustrations
Original Diagram
Equivalent Diagram
Original Diagram
Equivalent Diagram
Illustrations

Example 2.7
Illustrations
Illustrations
Example 2.7
Signal-Flow Graph Models
For complex systems, the block diagram method can become

difficult to complete. By using the signal-flow graph model, the
reduction procedure (used in the block diagram method) is not
necessary to determine the relationship between system
variables.
Illustrations
Illustrations
Y1( s )
G11( s ) R1( s ) G12( s ) R2( s )
Y2( s )
G21( s ) R1( s ) G22( s ) R2( s )
Illustrations
a11 x1 a12 x2 r1
x1
a21 x1 a22 x2 r2
x2

Example 2.8
Illustrations
Y( s )
G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4 1 L 3 L 4 G 5 G 6 G 7 G 8 1 L 1 L 2
R( s )
1 L 1 L 2 L 3 L 4 L 1 L 3 L 1 L 4 L 2 L 3 L 2 L 4

Example 2.10
Illustrations
Y( s )
G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4
R( s )
1 G 2 G 3 H 2 G 3 G 4 H 1 G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4 H 3
P1
Illustrations
Y( s )
P1 P2 2 P3
R( s )
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
P2
G1 G2 G7 G6
P3
G1 G2 G3 G4 G8
1 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L5 L7 L5 L4 L3 L4
3
1 L5
1 G4 H4
Design Examples
Illustrations
Design Examples
Speed control of an electric traction motor

Illustrations
Design Examples
Illustrations
Design Examples
Illustrations
Design Examples
Illustrations
Design Examples
Illustrations
The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
error
Sys1 = sysh2 / sysg4
Illustrations
Illustrations
error
Num4=[0.1];
Illustrations
Illustrations
Illustrations
Sequential Design Example: Disk Drive Read System
Illustrations
Illustrations
=
Illustrations
P2.11
Illustrations
P2.11
L d L a s R d R a
L c s R c
+Vd
Vq
Id
K2
K1
1
L qs R q
Illustrations
J s b
Vc
Ic
Tm
Km
-Vb
K3
Illustrations
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/sensitivity/index.htm
Illustrations
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/
Illustrations

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Chapter 2: Mathematical Models of Systems

Differential Equation of Physical Systems

angular rate difference = across-variable

Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Linear Approximations Example 2.1

The Laplace Transform

Historical Perspective - Heavisides Operators

Expanded in a power series

The Laplace Transform

Here the complex frequency is

The Laplace Transform exists when

this means that the integral converges

The Laplace Transform

The Laplace Transform

and, from which

The Laplace Transform

Practical Example - Consider the circuit.

Applying the Laplace Transform, we have

transforming back to the time domain, with our present knowledge of

The Laplace Transform

The partial fraction expansion indicates that F(s) consists of

a sum of terms, each of which is a factor of the denominator.

coefficients with those of the coefficients of the numerator

before separation in different terms.

The Laplace Transform

The Laplace Transform

The Laplace Transform

The Laplace Transform

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The partial fraction expansion yields:

The Laplace transform yields:

Since R(s)=1/s and y(0)=1, we obtain:

The steady-state response is:

Therefore the transient response is:

s 2Y(s ) s y(0) 4(s Y(s ) y(0)) 3Y(s )

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

field controled motor - Lapalce Transform

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Gear Ratio = n = N1/N2

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

and is often negligible

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

For low frequency oscillations, where n