System Design Loads stresses

and Maintenance
By Ejigayehu

System Design Philosophy

The design and construction of modern

aircraft is controlled by the regulation

detailed in JAR 23 for aircraft with a mass of
5700KG and less, and JAR 25 for Air
Transport aircraft and aircraft of a mass
greater than 5700Kg.
This regulations classify aircraft structure in
to Three Groups
Primary structure:- stressed and could cause

catastrophic in the event of failure

Secondary structure: stressed but to a lesser
degree.
Tertiary structure: not stressed or nominally

Parts
Parts that make up a structure and systems

are also categorized depending on the

effect that failure would have on a unit or
system.
Critical parts:- must achieve and maintain a
particularly high level of integrity if
hazardous effects are not to occur at a rate
in excess of extremely remote.
The failing of a Major part might adversely
affect the operational integrity of the unit in
which it is installed.

Design Limit Load(DLL)

The Maximum Load that the aircraft

designer or component manufacturer

expects the airframe or component to be
subject to in operation

Design Ultimate Load(DUL)

An aircraft could experience loads in excess

of the DLL.
A test is carried out where the minimum
load applied to the structure must be
1.5xDLL for three seconds.
There may be permanent deformation but
it must not collapse
The difference between the DLL and DUL is
the Safety Factor.
It is expressed as the ratio of DUL to DLL

Catastrophic Failure
The regulations specify that there will be no

catastrophic failure due to

Fatigue
Corrosion
Accidental damage

To comply with this requirement designers

must evaluate the materials they intend to

use and the loads the aircraft would be
subject to during their operational life.
The result is Safe life philosophy.

Safe Life
The aircraft structure as a whole and

components within the aircraft are given

safe life. This is based on one, several or all
of the following
Cumulative flying Hours
Landings
Pressurization Cycles
Calendar time.

Fail Safe structure.

No one item with in structure takes the

entire load.

Damage Tolerant
Spreads the loads over a larger area
Any damage to the structure should be

found and repaired during normal

inspection before there is degradation of
the structures integrity.

Servicing Cycle
Aircraft inspections are based on flying

hour cycles, and a calendar date is used as

back stop.
Aircraft normally have a major servicing
every five years.

Loads and Stresses

Aircraft structural members are designed to carry

a load or to resist stress

Every part of the aircraft must be planned to carry
the load to be imposed upon it.
The determination of such loads is called stress
analysis
External loads or forces cause stress.
Stress is a materials internal resistance, or
counterforce, that opposes deformation
The degree of deformation of a material is strain.
When a material is subjected to a load or force,
that material is deformed, regardless of how
strong the material is or how light the load is.

Major stresses
Tension
Compression
Torsion
Shear
Bending
Hoop stress
Axial stress

Elasticity of Materials
When the material is deformed beyond its elastic limit

permanent deformation will occur.

In aircraft deformation can take the form of bending,
buckling, elongation, twisting, shearing or cracking
which ultimately leads to fracture and creep in
material.
Where a material is deformed below its elastic limit but
for a protracted period the material con deform this is
termed as creep. The factors that affect creep are
Material type
Load applied
Duration of load
temperature

Shock Loads
When a structure has sudden increase in

the load that is being applied to it, this is

termed as shock load.
Bird strike, heavy landing are the causes of
shock loads.
It causes permanent deformation.

Fatigue in materials
Inevitable in material that are subject to

alternating load.

Fatigue Cracking
When a structure is subjected to an

average stress scores, scratches, fastner

holes, sharp edges or sharp radial edges
can build local stress levels 2 to 3 times
greater than the average.

Corrosion
is the gradual deterioration of metal due to a chemical

or electrochemical reaction with its environment.

The reaction can be triggered by the atmosphere,
moisture, or other agents.
When inspecting the structure of an aircraft, it is
important to watch for evidence of corrosion on both
the outside and inside.
Corrosion on the inside is most likely to occur in
pockets and corners where moisture and salt spray
may accumulate; therefore, drain holes must always
be kept clean.
Also inspect the surrounding members for evidence of
corrosion.

Forces that act on structures and

materials in flight
Lift
Drag
Mass
Thrust
Acceleration
Inertia

Other factors for consideration

Airspeed
Temperature
Altitude

On the Ground
During landing
friction
Pressurization
Thrust reversal
Breaking
Stationary
Taxiing
On take off

Maintenance

2. Airframe

Airframe major components

Attachment Methods
Skins, frames and formers must be joined together

using rivets or bonding

Riveting is time consuming and has disadvantage
of requiring a row of holes drilled through the skin
and the frame to which it is attached.
Technological progress has allowed large billets of
alloy to be machined(milled) to remove
unnecessary material.
This process has allowed the retention of material
to give strength and rigidity.
It is not necessary to attach frames with alloy skin.
Chemical etching of material has further refined
this process.

Aircraft construction Materials

Metals
High Tensile steels
Stainless steels
Titanium alloys
Nickel Alloys
Light Alloy
Pure Aluminum
Aluminum Alloys

Composite Materials
Manufactured from reinforcing fibers embedded in

bonding resins
The main reinforcing materials are
Glass (GFRP)
Carbon(graphite)CFRP
Boron
Aramid, known as Kevlar, KFRP, a synthetic material
Lithium is being evaluated as material

Some bonding Materials are

Epoxy Resin
PTFE

Advantages of Composite
Materials
The ability to arrange the fibers to obtain

directional properties consistent with the

load
The ability to make complex shapes, since
the material is not homogeneous
Weight savings
Resistance to corrosion
High specific strength
High specific stiffness

Disadvantages of Composite
Materials
They are quickly eroded by hail, sand, etc,

so leading edges must be sheathed

Difficult to repair
Can absorb moisture if the material is not
correctly sealed

Wing, Tail surfaces and control

surfaces

The Wing
Purpose
Produces lift
Provides attachment points for the landing
gear, engines and the aileron
Aids in lateral and directional stability

Wing Design
Design
Depends on the intended use, size, weight
and speed of the aircraft
Location is usually attached to the
fuselage

Types of wing construction

Based on number of spars
Mono spar
Two spar
Box Beam

Box beam structure

Types of wing construction

contd
Based on how they are supported
1. Cantilever- doesnt need external support
2. Semi cantilever- needs external support

Cantilever, semi-cantilever, wire

braced

Contd
Based on how stresses are transmitted
Truss
Stressed skin

Truss type
The spars are separated by compression

members
The truss is held together with high
strength steel wires The compression
members carry the compressive
stresses, while the drag and anti-drag
wires carry the tensile forces.
The structure carries the entire load.
The skin is usually not a stress- carrying
member.

Truss Type

Basic wood wing structure and

components.

Cont
Drag wires (run from rear spar inboard to front spar

outboard)
Anti-drag wires (run from rear spar outboard to
front spar inboard)
The skin on the top surface of the wing has to be
stiffer than the lower side. The upper surface is
exposed to compressive stress, while the lower side
is subjected to tensile stress.

Former ribs attach to the spars to give

shape
The structure is covered with fabric

Stressed skin
A metal skin is riveted to stringers and ribs
The stringers are also riveted to the skin and

the ribs
The ribs transfer the stresses to the spars

Sandwich (bonded
honeycomb)
Metal bonded honeycomb
Fiber glass
composite

Structural members of the

wing
Spar- longitudinal members of the wing
Main structural member of the wing
Can be made of wood or metal
Takes bending moment

Spar contd
Types
Solid wood
Laminated wood
Extruded metal
Built up metal
Spar shapes
Box

Beam
I beam

Cross sectional areas of wooden

spars

Typical metal spar shapes

Spars

A plate web wing spar with vertical stiffeners

A fail-safe spar with a riveted spar web.

Stringers Are also longitudinal members

Give the wing rigidity
Manufactured from aluminum alloys.

Ribs
are chord wise members
Extend from the leading edge to the

trailing edge or from front spar to the

rear spar
Give shape to the wing
Transmit loads from the covering to the
spars
Pass concentrated loads from engines,
landing gears and control surfaces in to
the skin and spars.
Can be made of wood or metal

Typical wing ribs

Types of wing Ribs

Built up
Stamped

Skin
carries primary aerodynamic loads

False ribs
Extend from the front spar to the leading

edge
Give streamlined shape to the leading edge
Transfer stresses to the front spar

Wing plan forms

Straight wing
Tapered wing
Swept wing (forward or back)
Delta Wing

Wing Configuration
Low wing
High wing
Mid Wing
Dihedral wing
Gull wing
Inverted gull wing

The empennage
Includes the tail boom, vertical stabilizer, and

the horizontal stabilizer

Construction

The fuselage terminates at the tail cone with similar but more
lightweight construction.

Vertical stabilizer

The stabilizers
Horizontal stabilizer
Vertical stabilizer

Horizontal stabilizer
Purpose- provides longitudinal stability and
control
Provides attachment point for the elevator
Construction- similar to the wing
Truss
Stressed skin
Bonded honey comb

Vertical Stabilizer
Purpose
provides directional stability and control
Provides attachment point for the rudder

Construction similar to the horizontal stabilizer

Location
usually attached at the rear of the fuselage

 Control Surface
Are hinged or moveable surfaces to control

the attitude of the aircraft

Primary control surfaces

1.The elevator
2.The ailerons
3.The rudder

The Elevator
Purpose
provides longitudinal control (pitch control)
Location
usually mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical

stabilizer.

Elevator construction
Construction
Fabric covered truss
Stressed Skin
Bonded honeycomb

Can be actuated mechanically by control

cables, electrically or hydraulically

Operation is operated by moving the
control yoke or wheel forward or backward

Elevator movement
Moving the control yoke forward, deflects the

trailing edge of the elevator downwards,

which moves the nose of the aircraft
downwards.
The opposite holds true when the wheel is
moved backwards.

Transferring control surface inputs

from the cockpit

2. The aileron
Purpose provides lateral control (roll
control)
Location- usually mounted on the trailing
edge of the wing

Ailerons contd
Fabric covered truss
Stressed skin
Bonded honey comb

Operation operated by moving the control

yoke or wheel to the right or to the left
Moving the control yoke to the left deflects
the trailing edge of the left aileron up and the
trailing edge of the right aileron down,
decreasing the lift on the left wing and
banking the aircraft to the left
The opposite holds true when the wheel is
moved to the right
Can be actuated mechanically by control
cables, electrically or hydraulically

3. The rudder
Purpose provide directional control (yaw
control)
Location usually mounted on the trailing
edge of the Vertical stabilizer

Contd
Construction
Fabric covered truss
Stressed skin
Bonded honeycomb
Can be actuated mechanically,

electrically or hydraulically
Operation- operated by pushing rudder
pedals in the cockpit
Pushing the right pedal deflects the
trailing edge of the rudder to the right
turning the nose of the aircraft to the
right.

Control surface flutter

Rapid and uncontrolled oscillation of control surface
Occurs as a result of an unbalanced surface
Caused by the interaction of aerodynamic forces, inertia

forces and the elastic properties of the surface or structure

and can lead to catastrophic failure of the structure.
Can be prevented by mass balancing control surface to
alter the moment of inertia of control surfaces and its
period vibration (moving C.G closer to hinge)
Poorly maintained A/c (high flexibility or play of control
surface ) may flutter below limit air speed.
May be prevented by using engines as mass balance
placing them on the wing pylon forward of wing leading
edge.

Combination control surface

Ruddervators (V-tail) functions as a
rudder and elevator
Elevons- serves the functions of the
elevator and aileron
Flaperons- functions as a flap and aileron
Stabilator- a hinged moveable horizontal
stabilizer which can be used for pith
control

Secondary control surfaces

Tabs
Functionprovides a means of trimming the aircraft
Assists the pilot to move the main control

surface

Location- hingled at the trailing edge of the

main control surfaces

Contd
Construction
Corrugated skin
Bonded honeycomb
Stressed skin

Types
Trim tabs
Servo tabs
Balance tabs
Spring tabs

Trim tabs
are used for trimming (fixed or adjustable)

Servo tabsassist the pilot to move the main control

surface
Operation

are operated by the cockpit control wheel

are deflected to a direction that is opposite

to the direction of movement of the main

control surface
Aerodynamic forces act on the tab to move
the main control surface

Balance tabs
aid the pilot to move the main control

surface
Are deflected in the opposite direction

when the main control surface is deflected

Spring tabs
provide control assistance at high speed

Balance panels

Flight control Tabs

Auxiliary control surfaces

1.Trailing edge flaps
2.Leading edge flaps
3.Leading edge slats
4.spoilers

Trailing edge flaps

Purpose increase wing camber and area to
Increase lift
Increase drag
Reduce airspeed for landing
Shorten the landing roll
Shorten the takeoff run

Contd
Types
Plain flap
Fowler flap
Split flap
Segmented flap

Construction
Fabric covered truss
Stressed skin
Bonded honeycomb

Contd
Location
usually hinged or mounted on the trailing

edge of the wings

Can be actuated mechanically,

hydraulically or electrically

2. Spoilers and Speed Brakes

Purpose to reduce lift
to increase drag
to aid the aileron in lateral control
to reduce speed of the aircraft during decent

and after landing

Contd
Location hinged at the upper surface of the

wings
Construction

Stressed Skin
Bonded honeycomb

Some a/c have speed brakes mounted on the

fuselage

3. Leading edge flaps

Purpose
increase the camber of the wing and provide greater
lift at lower airspeeds
Location
usually hinged on the leading edge
normally flush with the lower surface of the wing
Can be actuated mechanically, electrically or

hydraulically

4. Leading Edge Slats

Purpose
to reduce the stalling speed and increase lift at

lower airspeeds
Location
mounted on the leading edge of the wing
Construction
similar to trailing edge flaps
Operation
normally flush with the wing leading edge
When extended move forward and open a slot to
allow air flow and prevent stalling
Some aircraft have fixed slots

The Fuselage
The main body of the aircraft to which the

wings, tail, and landing gear attach

Purpose
Provides space for cargo, controls,
accessories, passengers and other
equipment
Provides attachment points for the engines

Requirements
Must be strong and light in weight
Must be streamlined
Must be air conditioned or ventilated
Must be pressurized if the aircraft flies at

high altitudes must be provided with

emergency exist

Types of Construction

1.
2.
3.

Three general types :- depending upon

the method by which stresses
transmitted to the structure
Truss
Monocoque
Semi-monocoque

Truss
A rigid frame work of bars, beams, rods, tubes

and wires. The members are joined together

by riveting or welding

Contd
Longitudinal longerons are the primary load

carrying members
Lateral bracing is placed at regular
intervals. The frame work is covered with
fabric, wood, aluminum or fiberglass

There are two types of truss

construction

1. Pratt truss
Vertical and diagonal members connect

the longerons
The diagonal members can be wires
(carry only tension) or rigid tubing (can
carry both tension and compression)

Contd

2. Warren truss
The longerons are connected only with

diagonal members
Material
Steel and aluminum alloy

Stressed Skin Construction

All the loads are carried in the outside skin
Can be built in a clean, smooth and

efficient aerodynamic shape

Full Monocoque
Is a metal tube or cone without internal

structural members
Formers can be used to give shape
Relies on the strength of the skin to carry
stresses

An airframe using monocoque

construction

Semi Monocoque
Has additional longitudinal members

(Longerons and stringers) to reinforce the

skin
The skin is riveted to stringers which in turn
are riveted to the formers

Semi Monocoque

The Structure includes

1.Skin (plating)- aluminum alloy, titanium,

and stainless steel

2. Longitudinal Members
Stringers
Longerons

3.Vertical members
Frames or formers
bulkheads

Pressurization
Many aircraft are pressurized.
air is pumped into the cabin after takeoff

and a difference in pressure between the

air inside the cabin and the air outside the
cabin is established.
This differential is regulated and
maintained.
In this manner, enough oxygen is made
available for passengers to breathe
normally and move around the cabin
without special equipment at high altitudes.

Contd
Pressurization causes significant stress on

the fuselage structure and adds to the

complexity of design.
In addition to withstanding the difference in
pressure between the air inside and outside
the cabin, cycling from unpressurized to
pressurized and back again each flight
causes metal fatigue.
Pressurized fuselage structures undergo
extensive periodic inspections to ensure
that any damage is discovered and
repaired.

Stringers Length wise

members
Numerous in number and smaller in size

than longerons
Run from the nose of the aircraft to the tail
of the aircraft
Provide space for fastening the skin
Types
Extruded
Cast
Formed

Contd
Cross Sectional Shapes
L- angles
Bulb angle
Hat Section
U- channel
Z- Section

Material
Aluminum alloy

Contd
Longerons are also length wise members
Heavier than stringers
Carry primary bending loads
Similar to Stringers in shape and construction

Contd
3. Vertical Members
1. Bulkheads are the heaviest vertical

members
Carry concentrated loads

2. Formers Give shape to the fuselage

Transfer stresses from the fuselage to the
bulkheads

Contd
C. Reinforced Shell
The structure is reinforced with a
framework of structural members

Cabin Floors

Contd
Manufactured from a series of Panels

attached to supporting beams and cross

members
Aircraft having pressurized cabin and hold
are manufactured from honey comb
structure.
This allows light weight structure to
withstand compression loads and heavy
rigidity without incurring weight penalty.

Blow out Bungs

Press fitted
To equalize the pressure in the event of loss

of pressure in one of the compartments

WINDOWS
Modern subsonic and transonic air

transport aircraft use stepped nose profile,

this allows the
Nose to be aerodynamically profiled
Windscreens to be located optically
acceptable
The pilot required vision for both ground
and flight operations
Reduction in the physical size of the
windscreens

Contd

Direct vision window

To comply with the regulations on

maintaining clear vision in the event of

failure of the demisting system one of the
side panel windows on each side can be
removed from within flight deck to allow
clear view.

Passenger Cabin Window

Aircraft Doors certified under JAR 23

and JAR 25

Contd
Plug type door
Close from inside
Locking pins that engage in the door frame
Cabin pressure which is greater than

ambient pushes the door more tightly in to

the frame.

Seat mounting support

structure

Spar Attachment
The strongest part of the fuselage is where

the wings are attached, as this structure is

the point where all flight loads will be felt.

The Landing Gear (Under

Carriage)
Purpose
Cushions the landing impact
supports the aircraft during ground
operations
Dampens vibrations while towing and taxing
Posses a low coefficient of drag
Provide minimum friction between the
aircraft and ground

Location- is attached to the fuselage or

the wing

Can be fixed or retractable

Extending and retracting systems

Mechanical
Electrical
Hydraulic

Contd
Has shock absorbers to cushion the landing

impact and dampen vibrations

Shock chord
Spring gear
Spring oleo
Air oleo

Spring gear

Contd
Skis are used for take off and landing on

snow or ice
Floats are used for those aircraft which can
take off and land on water surfaces

Float
A completely enclosed water tight structure

attached to an aircraft to provide buoyancy

and stability while landing on water
surfaces.

Floats

skis

Landing gear arrangement

Conventional has two main wheels and one

tail wheel
Tricycle- two main wheels and a nose wheel

Conventional landing gear

Consists of
Two main wheels ( forward of the CG) and
one tail wheel
Seldom used on modern aircraft
Advantages
Provides good propeller-ground clearance
Advantageous if aircraft operates on rough field

Disadvantages
Restricted visibility
Nosing over
Ground looping

Tricycle landing gear

Two main wheels (aft of the CG) and a nose

wheel
Widely used on modern airplanes
Advantages
Allows more forceful application of the brakes

with out nosing over

Offers better visibility
Tends to prevent ground looping

Flight Controls

Introduction
The movement of flying control surfaces in

response to the movement of cockpit

controls can be achieved
Mechanically:- the control surfaces are
connected directly to the cockpit controls
by a system of cables, rods, levers,and
chains
Hydraulically:-the control surfaces are
moved by hydraulic power, the control
valve may still be operated mechanically
Electrically:- movement of the cockpit
control sends an electrical signal to the
control surface, the movement of the

Manual controls

Contd
It is manually controlled
Reversible:- the force applied to the cockpit

control will move the control surface and

the force applied on control surface will
move cockpit control.

Control system Checks

In some situations it is necessary for the

pilot to check part of this

Cable tension
Safety and locking of controls
Range of movements of control(freedom
and operation in the correct sense)
Friction in the system
Backlash of the system

Cable Tension
If too low the cable will be loose permitting

excessive cable movement

Too high the control will be stiff
It can be adjusted by turn buckles
The tension can be measured by
tensiometer

Tensiometer

Temperature compensation
If aircraft structural material is different

from cable material change in length will

occur
When checking for tension allowance
should be made for temperature

Safety And Locking

After tension has been correctly set turn

buckles has to be checked for safety

Sufficient thread must be engaged
between the end fittings
To enable this inspection holes are provided
in the turn buckle.
Inspection hole must be blocked to ensure
safety
Check by inserting hardened pin

Range of control movement

The limit of control movement is controlled

by mechanical stop
Primary stop: stopping control surface
secondary stop: stopping control sticks and
pedals

Control system Friction

In ground operation it is normal
During flight stick force increases due to air

loads
If friction force is too high the feel of the
controls with changing airspeed will be
destroyed.
It is caused by over tension cables or un
lubricated bearings.

Backlash
Free or ineffective movement of cockpit

control when the cockpit control is

reversed.
Control system should be free of backlash
May indicate worn or incorrect components
in the system

Control Locks
When an aircraft is parked in open strong

or gusty winds can blow the controls

against their stops to cause mechanical
damage
It has to be cocked.

Duplicate Inspection of Control

syatem
If control system is disturbed in any way it

has to be checked by two separate

persons(one of them may be a pilot)

Powered Flying Controls

On some modern aircraft controls are

subjected to heavy loads due to

Heavy loads or
High speed

To reduce stick forces created by high

speed or load hydraulic or electric power is

needed.

Power operated controls

Essential components of simple

power operated controls
A hydraulic Actuator
A servo or control valve
An artificial feel unit.

Irreversible power control

Reversible powered controls

To prevent over controlling due to lack of

feel about the control action artificial feel

unit is installed
Designed to give pilot artificial feel
proportional to speed of aircraft and to the
amount of control surface movement
made.
This unit varies from simple spring loaded
to box to Q pot operating system

Spring Box artificial feel

Q pot feel mechanism

Contd
To be effective Q spot would have be very

large and nowadays this units are used with

a hydraulic spool valve selector

Artificial feel system

Artificial feel system

Artificial Feel system

Secondary Flight Controls

Lift augmenting devices high lift devices
Leading edge and trailing edge devices

Leading edge flap types

Plain
Split
Slotted
Blown
Fowler
Slotted fowler

Leading edge Devices are

Kruger flaps
Slots
Fixed slats
Retractable slats
Droop nose

Plain Flap

Zap flap

Basic flap operation in light

aircraft

Flap selector valve for other than

light aircraft

Fly By wire (FBW)

Power flying control system
Uses electronic inputs to solenoid operated

servo valve rather than mechanical in put

The pilot operates flight deck control via
control stick or pedal
This in turn operates transducers which
convert mechanical input to electrical
output which is amplified processed by
computers with a processed command out
put to servo valve which controls the
movement of hydraulic actuators.

FBW block diagram

Redundancy
Safeguards to eliminate the possibility of

loss of control in the event of hydraulic or

electrical failure must be provided in
modern aircraft control
This is achieved by building some form of
redundancy in to the control system
Splitting the system in to two or three
separate sections, each powered by
separate actuators and hydraulic system is
the usual method.
Computer system redundancy is also
provided in Airbus Flight control