PRECALCULUS

Reference : TC7 by Leithold

This presentation is a copyright of Robert T. Nericua
2015

Review

REAL NUMBERS AND

INEQUALITIES

Fu n d a m e n t a l
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REAL NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

The real number system consist of a set R of
elements called real numbers and two operations
called addition and multiplication, denoted by the
symbols + and , respectively.
If a and b are elements of a set R, a + b indicates the
sum of a and b, and a b (or ab) indicates their
product.
The operation of subtraction is defi ned by the
equation a b= a + (-b) , where b denotes the
negative of b such that b + (-b) =0.
The operation of division is defi ned by the equation a
b = a b - 1 , b 0, where b - 1 denotes the
reciprocal of b such that
b b - 1 = 1.

REAL NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

Axiom is used to indicate a formal statement
assumed to be true without proof.
Properties that can be shown to be logical
consequences of axioms are theorems.
In the statement of most theorems there are two
parts: the if part, called the hypothesis, and the
then part is called conclusion.
The argument verifying a theorem is a proof.
A real number is either a positive, negative, or zero,
and any real number can be classifi ed as either
rational or irrational.
A rational number is one that can be form as the
ratio of two integers.

REAL NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

The rational numbers consist of the following:

Integers
Fractions
Terminating decimals
Nonterminating repeating decimals

The real numbers that are not rational are called

irrational numbers.

REAL NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

Set is a collection of objects and the objects of a set
are called elements.
A variable is a symbol used to represent any element
of a given set.
Defi nition of Absolute Value

REAL NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

Theorems

known as The Triangle Inequality

COORDINATES AND
GRAPHS OF
EQUATIONS

Fu n d a m e n t a l
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COORDINATE AND GRAPHS OF

EQUATIONS
The origination of analytic geometry is credited to Ren
Descartes (1596-1650).
In his book Geometry, published in 1635, Descartes
established the union of algebra and geometry by a
rectangular Cartesian coordinate system.
Any two real numbers form a pair, and when the order
of appearance of the numbers is signifi cant, we call it
an ordered pair.
The set of all ordered pairs of real numbers is called the
number plane, denoted by R 2 , and each ordered pair (x
, y) is a point in the number plane.
The fi rst number x of the pair is called the abscissa (or
x coordinate) of P ,a and the second number y is
called ordinate (or y coordinate) of P.

COORDINATE AND GRAPHS OF

EQUATIONS
The x and y axes are coordinate axes.
They divided the plane into four parts called
quadrants.
The Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, if a and b are the lengths of the
perpendicular sides and c is the length of the
hypotenuse, then
a2 + b2 = c2
The Distance Formula

COORDINATE AND GRAPHS OF

EQUATIONS

The
Midpoint Formula

LINES

Fu n d a m e n t a l
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LINES

Defi
nition of a Slope of a Line

The graph of the equation Ax + By + C = 0 ,where A,

B, and C are constants and where not both A and B
are zero, is a line.
If l 1 and l 2 are two distinct nonvertical lines having
slopes m 1 and m 2 , respectively, then l 1 and l 2 are
parallel and if and only if m 1 = m 2 .

LINES
Two vertical lines l 1 and l 2 having slopes m 1 and m 2 ,
respectively, are perpendicular if and only if m 1 m 2 =1.

PARABOLAS

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PARABOLAS
A parabola is a set of all points in a plane equidistant
from a fi xed point and a fi xed line.
The fi xed point is called the focus.
The fi xed line is called the directrix.
Theorem
An equation of the parabola having its focus at (0, p)
and having as its directrix the line y=-p is x 2 =4py.
An equation of the parabola having its focus at (p,0)
and its directrix is the line x=-p is y 2 =4px.

PARABOLAS
The intersection of the parabola with its axis is called
Vertex; latus rectum is the chord perpendicular to the
fi xed axis (directrix) and passing through the focus.

CIRCLES

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CIRCLE
A circle is the set of all points in a plane equidistant
from a fi xed point. The fi xed point is called the
center of the circle, and the constant distance is
called the radius of the circle.
Equation of the Circle
Center- Radius Form
x 2 + y 2 + Dx +Ey + F = 0 General Form

TRANSLATION OF
AXES

Fu n d a m e n t a l s

TRANSLATION OF AXES
Equations for Translating the Axes
If (x,y) represents a point P with respect to a given set
of axes, and (x,y) is a representative of P after the
axes are translated to a new origin having coordinates
(h,k) with respect to the given axes, then
x = x h and y=y-k
Standard Forms of an Equation of a Parabola
If p is the directed distance from the vertex to the
focus , an equation of the parabola with its vertex (h,
k) and with its axis vertical is
(x-h) 2 = 4p(y-k)

TRANSLATION OF AXES
A parabola with the same vertex and with axis
horizontal has the equation
(y-k) 2 = 4p(x-h)

ELLIPSES

F U N D A M E N TA L
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ELLIPSES
An ellipse is the set of points in a plane the sum
whose distance from two points is a constant. Each
fi xed point is called a focus.
The line through the foci of an ellipse is called
principal axis; The points of intersection of the
ellipse and its principal axis are called the vertices;
The point on the principal axis that lies between the
two vertices is called the center.
The segment of the principal axis between the two
vertices is called the major axis, and its length is 2a
units. The minor axis is the line segment
perpendicular to the principal axis and has a length
of 2b.

ELLIPSE
Equation of an Ellipse
If 2a is the constant referred to in the defi nition of
an ellipse, if the foci are at (c,0) and (-c,0), and if
b 2 =a 2 c 2 , then an equation of the ellipse is

ELLIPSE
The Standard Form of an Equation of an Ellipse
If the center of an ellipse is at (h , k) and the distance
between the vertices is 2a, then an equation of the ellipse is
of the form

If the principal axis is horizontal, and

If the principal axis is vertical.

 The eccentricity e of an ellipse is the ratio of the

undirected distance between the foci to the
undirected distance between the vertices; that is ,

HYPERBOLAS

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HYPERBOLAS
A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane, the
absolute value of the diff erence of whose distances
from two fi xed points is a constant. The two fi xed
points are called the foci.
Equation of a Hyperbola
if 2a is the constant referred to in the defi nition of a
hyperbola , if the foci are at (c,0) and (-c,0) , and if
b 2 =c 2 - a 2 , then an equation of the hyperbola is
The line through the foci of an hyperbola is called the
principal axis. The points where the hyperbola
intersects the principal axis are called the vertices,
and the point halfway between the vertices is the
center.

HYPERBOLAS
The line segment connecting the two vertices is
called the transverse axis, the line segment
perpendicular to the transverse axis and has a length
of 2b is called conjugate axis.
The Standard Form of the Equation of a
Hyperbola
If the center of a hyperbola is at (h,k) and the distance
between the vertices is 2a, then an equation of the
hyperbola is of the form
If the principal axis is horizontal, and
If the principal axis is vertical.

TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS

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TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In Geometry, an Angle is defi ned as the union of two
rays called the sides, having a common endpoint
called the vertex.
Defi nition of Sine and Cosine Function
Defi nition of a Periodic Function
Fundamental Pythagorean Identity
sin 2 + cos 2 =1
Defi nition of the Tangent, Secant, Cotangent,
and Cosecant

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

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PARTIAL FRACTION
Partial Fraction is method of expressing a single
rational expression as a sum of two or more simpler
quotients.
The degree of the numerator is less than the degree
of the denominator is called a proper fraction.
The degree of the numerator is not less than the
degree of the denominator is called a improper
fraction.