Chapter2 Angle

EKT343 Principle of Communication
Engineering
Angle
modulation is the process by

which the angle (frequency or phase)
of the carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of modulating or message
signal.

Engineering
classified
into two types such as
Frequency modulation (FM)

Phase modulation (PM)
Used
for :
Commercial radio broadcasting

Television sound transmission
Two way mobile radio
Cellular radio
Microwave and satellite communication system

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Advantages over AM:

Freedom from interference: all natural and external
noise consist of amplitude variations, thus receiver
usually cannot distinguish between amplitude of
noise or desired signal. AM is noisy than FM.
Operate in very high frequency band (VHF): 88MHz108MHz
Can transmit musical programs with higher degree
of fidelity.

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In
FM, the carrier amplitude remains

constant, the carrier frequency varies
with the amplitude of modulating
signal.
The
amount of change in carrier

frequency produced by the modulating
signal
is
known
as
frequency
deviation.
Engineering
The
process by which changing the phase of

carrier
signal
in
accordance
with
the
instantaneous of message signal. The amplitude
remains constant after the modulation process.
Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:
m t Vm cos mt
And carrier signal:
c t Vc cos[ c t ]
Engineering
Where
= phase angle of carrier signal. It is
changed in accordance with the amplitude of the

message signal;
i.e.
After
be
or
KVm (t ) KVm cos mt

phase modulation the instantaneous voltage will
v pm ( t ) VC cos(C t KVm cos m t )

v pm ( t ) VC cos(C t m p cos m t )
Where mp = Modulation index of phase modulation

K is a constant and called deviation sensitivities of
the phase

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process where the frequency of the

carrier wave varies with the magnitude
variations of the modulating or audio
signal.
The amplitude of the carrier wave is
kept constant.

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Engineering
Carrier
Modulating
Signal
FM
signal

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10
Mathematical
analysis:
Let message signal:
m t Vm cos mt
And
carrier signal:
c t Vc cos[ c t ]
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11
During
the process of frequency modulations the

frequency of carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
message signal.Therefore the frequency of
carrier after modulation is written as
i c K1v m t C K1Vm cos m t
To find the instantaneous phase angle of modulated signal,

integrate equation above w.r.t. t
i i dt C K1Vm cos m t dt C t
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K1Vm
sin m t
m
12
Thus,
we get the FM wave as:
K1Vm
v FM ( t ) Vc cos 1 VC cos(C t
sin m t )
m
vFM (t ) VC cos(C t m f sin mt )

Where
modulation index for FM is

given by
K1Vm
mf
m
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13
Therefore:
f K1Vm ;
f
mf
fm
K1
deviation sensitivities Hz/V

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14
Tomasi
Electronic Communications Systems, 5e
Copyright 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

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15
Determine
the
peak
frequency
deviation (f) and modulation index
(m) for an FM modulator with a
deviation sensitivity K1 = 5 kHz/V and
a modulating signal,
v m ( t ) 2 cos(22000 t )

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16
Determine
the peak phase deviation

(m) for a PM modulator with a
deviation sensitivity K = 2.5 rad/V
and a modulating signal,
v m ( t ) 2 cos(22000 t )

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17
Thus,
for general equation:
vFM (t ) VC cos(C t m f cos mt )

n
cos( m cos ) J n (m) cos n
2
m( t ) VC J n ( m) cos c t nm t

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18

v t FM VC {J 0 (m f ) cos C t J1 (m f ) cos (C m )t
2
J1 (m f ) cos (C m )t J 2 (m f ) cos (C 2m )t
2
J 2 (m f ) cos (C 2m )t ...J n (m f )...}

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19
It
is seen that each pair of side band is

preceded by J coefficients. The order of the
coefficient is denoted by subscript m. The
Bessel function can be written as
mf
J n m f
2
2
4
m f / 2
1 m f / 2

....
n 1! n 1! 2! n 2 !
N = number of the side

Mf = modulation index
frequency

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20

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21

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22

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23
For
an FM modulator with a modulation

index m = 1, a modulating signal vm(t) = Vm
sin(21000t), and an unmodulated carrier vc(t)
= 10 sin(2500kt). Determine the number of
sets of significant side frequencies and
their
amplitudes.
Then,
draw
the
frequency spectrum showing their relative
amplitudes.

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24
FM
Bandwidth
Power distribution of FM
Generation & Demodulation of FM
Application of FM

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25
Theoretically,
the generation and transmission of FM

requires infinite bandwidth. Practically, FM system
have finite bandwidth and they perform well.
The value of modulation index determine the number
of sidebands that have the significant relative
amplitudes
If n is the number of sideband pairs, and line of
frequency spectrum are spaced by fm, thus, the
bandwidth is:
B fm 2nf m
For
n1
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26
Estimation of transmission b/w;

Assume mf is large and n is approximate
Bfm=2(mf + 2)fm
mf + 2; thus
f
2( 2) f m
fm
B fm 2(f f m )........(1)
(1) is called Carsons rule

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27
For
an FM modulator with a peak

frequency deviation, f = 10 kHz, a
modulating-signal frequency fm = 10 kHz,
Vc = 10 V and a 500 kHz carrier, determine
Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel
function table.
Approximate minimum bandwidth using
Carsons rule.
Plot the output frequency spectrum for the
Bessel approximation.

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28
The worse case modulation index which produces the

widest output frequency spectrum.
DR
f (max)
f m (max)
Where
f(max) = max. peak frequency deviation
fm(max) = max. modulating signal frequency

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29
Determine
the deviation ratio and bandwidth

for the worst-case (widest-bandwidth)
modulation index for an FM broadcast-band
transmitter with a maximum frequency
deviation of 75 kHz and a maximum
modulating-signal frequency of 15 kHz.
Determine
the deviation ratio and maximum

bandwidth for an equal modulation index with
only half the peak frequency deviation and
modulating-signal frequency.
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30
As
seen in Bessel function table, it shows that

as the sideband relative amplitude increases,
the carrier amplitude,J0 decreases.
This
is because, in FM, the total transmitted

power is always constant and the total
average power is equal to the unmodulated
carrier power, that is the amplitude of the FM
remains constant whether or not it is
modulated.

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31
In
effect, in FM, the total power that is originally

in the carrier is redistributed between all
components of the spectrum, in an amount
determined by the modulation index, mf, and the
corresponding Bessel functions.
At
certain value of modulation index, the carrier

component goes to zero, where in this condition,
the power is carried by the sidebands only.

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32
Vc2
Pc
2R
The average power in unmodulated carrier
The total instantaneous power in the angle modulated

carrier.
2
2
Vc
m( t )
Pt
cos 2 [c t ( t )]
R
R
Vc2 1 1
Vc2
Pt
cos[2c t 2( t )]
R 2 2
2R
The total modulated power
Vo2 2(V1 ) 2 2(V2 ) 2

2(Vn ) 2
Pt P0 P1 P2 .. Pn
..
2R
2R
2R
2R
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33
For
an FM modulator with a modulation

index m = 1, a modulating signal
vm(t) = Vmsin(21000t)
and an unmodulated carrier
vc(t) = 10sin(2500kt)
Determine the unmodulated carrier power
for the FM modulator given with a load
resistance, RL = 50. Determine also the
total power in the angle-modulated wave.
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34
For an FM modulator with modulation index,

m = 2, modulating signal,
vm(t) = Vmcos(22000t)
and an unmodulated carrier,
vc(t) = 10 cos(2800kt)
Assume, RL=50
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Determine the number of sets of significant sidebands.

Determine their amplitudes.
Draw the frequency spectrum showing the relative
amplitudes of the side frequencies.
Determine the bandwidth.
Determine the total power of the modulated wave.
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35
Two major FM generation:
i)
Direct method:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
straight forward, requires a VCO whose oscillation

frequency has linear dependence on applied voltage.
Advantage: large frequency deviation
Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to drift and
must be stabilized.
Common methods:
i)
ii)
FM Reactance modulators
Varactor diode modulators

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36
Generation of FM (contd)
1) Reactance
modulator

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37
Generation of FM (contd)
2) Varactor diode
modulator

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38
ii) Indirect method:

i.
ii.
Frequency-up conversion.
Two ways:
a.
b.
iii.
Heterodyne method
Multiplication method
One most popular indirect method is the Armstrong

modulator

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39
Wideband Armstrong Modulator

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40
A complete Armstrong modulator is supposed to

provide a 75kHz frequency deviation. It uses a
balanced modulator and 90o phase shifter to phasemodulate a crystal oscillator. Required deviation is
obtained by combination of multipliers and mixing,
raise the signal from 400kHz 14.47Hz to 90.2MHz 75kHz
suitable for broadcasting.

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41
2 k f
kp
kp
2 k f

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42
FM
demodulation
is a process of getting back or regenerate the original

modulating signal from the modulated FM signal.
It can be achieved by converting the frequency
deviation of FM signal to the variation of equivalent
voltage.
The demodulator will produce an output where its
instantaneous amplitude is proportional to the
instantaneous frequency of the input FM signal.

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43
To
detect an FM signal, it is necessary to have

a circuit whose output voltage varies linearly
with the frequency of the input signal.
The
most commonly used demodulator is the

PLL demodulator. Can be use to detect either
NBFM or WBFM.

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44
V0(t)
fi
FM input
Phase
detector
Low pass
filter
Amplifier
fvco
VCO

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Vc(t)
45
The phase detector produces an average output voltage

that is linear function of the phase difference between the
two input signals. Then low frequency component is pass
through the LPF to get a small dc average voltage to the
amplifier.
After amplification, part of the signal is fed back through

VCO where it results in frequency modulation of the VCO
frequency. When the loop is in lock, the VCO frequency
follows or tracks the incoming frequency.

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46
Let
instantaneous freq of FM Input,

fi(t)=fc +k1vm(t),
and the VCO output frequency,
f VCO(t)=f0 + k2Vc(t);
f0 is the free running frequency.
For the VCO frequency to track the
instantaneous incoming frequency,
fvco = fi; or ???

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47
f0
+ k2Vc(t)= fc +k1vm(t), so,
Vc (t ) f c f 0 k1vm (t )
If
VCO can be tuned so that fc=f0, then
Vc (t ) k1vm (t )
Where
Vc(t) is also taken as the output

voltage, which therefore is the demodulated
output

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48
The SNR can be increased without increasing transmitted

power about 25dB higher than in AM
Certain forms of interference at the receiver are more

easily to suppressed, as FM receiver has a limiter which
eliminates the amplitude variations and fluctuations.
The modulation process can take place at a low level power

stage in the transmitter, thus a low modulating power is
needed.
Power content is constant and fixed, and there is no waste

of power transmitted
There are guard bands in FM systems allocated by the

standardization body, which can reduce interference
between the adjacent channels.
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49
In
AM systems, noise easily distorts the

transmitted signal however, in FM systems
any added noise must create a frequency
deviation in order to be perceptible.

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50
The maximum frequency deviation due to random noise

occurs when the noise is at right angles to the resultant
signal. In the worst case the signal frequency has been
deviated by:
= fm
This shows that the deviation due to noise increases as the

modulation frequency increases. Since noise power is the
square of the noise voltage, the signal to noise ratio can
significantly degrade.
Noise occurs predominantly at the highest frequencies
within the baseband
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51
In FM systems where the signal level is well above noise

received carrier-to-noise ratio and demodulated signal-tonoise ratio are related by:
= signal-to-noise ratio at output of FM demodulator

= modulation index
= carrier-to-noise ratio at input of FM demodulator
Does not apply when the carrier-to-noise ratio decreases

below a certain point. Below this critical point the signalto-noise ratio decreases significantly.
Known as the FM threshold effect

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52
Below the FM threshold point the noise signal (whose amplitude

and phase are randomly varying), may instantaneously have an
amplitude greater than that of the wanted signal.
When this happens the noise will produce a sudden change in the
phase of the FM demodulator output.
In an audio system this

sudden phase change
makes a "click". In video,
the term "click noise" is
used to describe short
horizontal black and white
lines that appear randomly
over a picture.

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53
1.
Strong nonlinearity; intentionally introduced

in a controlled manner. It is introduced for
particular application e.g. square law modulators,
hard-limiters and frequency multipliers.
2.
Weak nonlinearity; introduced because of

imperfections in the communication channel.
Such linearities reduce the useful signal levels.
In next slide, we will examine the effects of weak

nonlinearities on FM signal
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54
Transfer characteric of communication channel is

given by
2
eo (t ) a1ei (t ) a2 ei (t ) a3ei (t )
Where
ei (t ) Ec cos[ wc (t ) (t )]
eo (t ) a1 Ec cos( wc (t ) (t )) a2 Ec cos 2 ( wc (t ) (t ))
2
a3 Ec cos 3 ( wc (t ) (t ))
3
We know that
1 2 cos x
3 cos x cos 3x
3
cos x
; cos x
2
4
2

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55
1
3
3
a1 Ec ( a1 Ec a 3 Ec ) cos(2f c (t ) (t ))
2
4
1
2
2
a2 Ec cos ( wc (t ) (t )) a1 Ec cos(2 2 f c (t ) 2 (t ))
2
1
3
a 3 Ec cos(2 3 fc (t ) 3 (t ))
4
eo (t )
After
filtering through bandpass filter, the fm

signal output
3
3
eo (t ) (a1 Ec a 3 Ec ) cos(2f c (t ) (t ))
4
Effect
of nonlinearities: nonlinear nature of

channel changes the amplitudes of the FM signal

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56
Noise
is interference generated by
lightning, motors, automotive ignition
systems, and power line switching that
produces transient signals.
Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage
with high frequencies.
Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and
interfere with it.
Some noise completely obliterates signal
information.
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57
FM
signals have a constant modulated carrier

amplitude.
FM receivers contain limiter circuits that
deliberately restrict the amplitude of the
received signal.
Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM
signal are effectively clipped by limiter
circuits.
This amplitude clipping does not affect the
information content of the FM signal, since it
is contained solely within the frequency
variations of the carrier.
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Principle of Communication
Figure 5-11: An FM signal with EKT343
noise.
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59
Preemphasis
Noise can interfere with an FM signal and

particularly with the high-frequency components of
the modulating signal.
Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and
contains a lot of harmonics and other highfrequency components.
To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique
known as preemphasis is used.
A simple high-pass filter can serve as a
transmitters pre-emphasis circuit.
Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only
high-frequency components.
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60
Preemphasis circuit.
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61
Preemphasis
A simple low-pass filter can operate as a

deemphasis circuit in a receiver.
A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency
response to its normal flat level.
The combined effect of preemphasis and
deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise ratio
for the high-frequency components during
transmission so that they will be stronger and not
masked by noise.

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62
Deemphasis circuit.
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63
FM
is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies

for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech
(FM broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is
also broadcast using FM. The type of FM used in
broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM
A
narrowband
form
is
used
for
voice
communications in commercial and amateur radio
settings. In two-way radio, narrowband narrowfm (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In
addition, it is used to send signals into space.

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64

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65

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66

a)
Bandwidth:
Actual minimum bandwidth from
Bessel table:
B 2(n f m )
b)
Approximate minimum bandwidth

using Carsons rule:
B 2(f f m )

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67
Multitone modulation (equation in

general):
i c Kvm1 Kvm 2
i c 2f1 cos 1t 2f 2 cos 2t....
f1
f 2
i C t
sin 1t
sin 2t......
f1
f2

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68
v fm t VC cos i
f1
f 2
v fm t VC cos[C t
sin 1t
sin 2t ]
f1
f2
VC cos[C t m f 1 sin 1t m f 2 sin 2t ]...........

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69
WBFM
NBFM
Modulation
index
greater than 10
less than 1
Freq deviation
75 kHz
5 kHz
Modulation
frequency
30 Hz- 15 kHZ
3 kHz
Spectrum
Infinite no of
sidebands and carrier
Two sidebands and

carrier
Bandwidth
15 x NBFM
2(*fm (max))
Noise
More suppressed
Less suppressed
Application
Entertainment &
Broadcasting
Mobile
communication
2 fm

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70
Wideband
FM gives significant improvement in the

SNR at the output of the RX which proportional to the
square of modulation index.
Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced
selective fading since amplitude variations are
unimportant and are removed at the receiver using a
limiting circuit.
Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting
interference. (minimizes the effect of noise).
Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient
transmitter power in information.
Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater
dynamic range of modulating signal without distortion
than AM.
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71
Angle
modulation requires a transmission

bandwidth much larger than the message
signal bandwidth.
Angle modulation requires more complex
and expensive circuits than AM.

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72
END OF ANGLE
MODULATION

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73
Determine
the deviation ratio and worstcase bandwidth for an FM signal with a

maximum frequency deviation 25 kHz and
maximum modulating signal 12.5 kHz.

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74
For
an FM modulator with 40-kHz

frequency deviation and a modulatingsignal frequency 10 kHz, determine the
bandwidth using both Carsons rule and
Bessel table.

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75
For
an FM modulator with an unmodulated

carrier amplitude 20 V, a modulation
index, m = 1, and a load resistance of 10ohm, determine the power in the
modulated carrier and each side
frequency, and sketch the power spectrum
for the modulated wave.

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76
frequency modulated signal (FM)

has the following expression:
v fm (t ) 38 cos(400 10 t m f sin 10 10 t )
6
The frequency deviation allowed in

this system is 75 kHz. Calculate the:
Modulation index
Bandwidth required, using Carsons rule

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77

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EKT343 Principle of Communication

modulation is the process by

EKT343 Principle of Communication

into two types such as

Frequency modulation (FM)

Commercial radio broadcasting

EKT343 Principle of Communication

Advantages over AM:

EKT343 Principle of Communication

FM, the carrier amplitude remains

amount of change in carrier

process by which changing the phase of

And carrier signal:

= phase angle of carrier signal. It is

changed in accordance with the amplitude of the

KVm (t ) KVm cos mt

v pm ( t ) VC cos(C t KVm cos m t )

Where mp = Modulation index of phase modulation

EKT343 Principle of Communication

process where the frequency of the

EKT343 Principle of Communication

EKT343 Principle of Communication

EKT343 Principle of Communication

the process of frequency modulations the

To find the instantaneous phase angle of modulated signal,

we get the FM wave as:

vFM (t ) VC cos(C t m f sin mt )

modulation index for FM is

deviation sensitivities Hz/V

EKT343 Principle of Communication

Copyright 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.

EKT343 Principle of Communication

EKT343 Principle of Communication

the peak phase deviation

EKT343 Principle of Communication

for general equation:

vFM (t ) VC cos(C t m f cos mt )

EKT343 Principle of Communication

J 2 (m f ) cos (C 2m )t ...J n (m f )...}

EKT343 Principle of Communication

is seen that each pair of side band is

N = number of the side

EKT343 Principle of Communication

EKT343 Principle of Communication

EKT343 Principle of Communication

EKT343 Principle of Communication

an FM modulator with a modulation

EKT343 Principle of Communication

EKT343 Principle of Communication

the generation and transmission of FM

Estimation of transmission b/w;

EKT343 Principle of Communication

an FM modulator with a peak

EKT343 Principle of Communication

The worse case modulation index which produces the

EKT343 Principle of Communication

the deviation ratio and bandwidth

the deviation ratio and maximum

seen in Bessel function table, it shows that

is because, in FM, the total transmitted

EKT343 Principle of Communication

effect, in FM, the total power that is originally

certain value of modulation index, the carrier

EKT343 Principle of Communication