CHAPTER

MEC 451
Thermodynamics
Lecture Notes:
MOHD HAFIZ MOHD NOH
HAZRAN HUSAIN & MOHD SUHAIRIL

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450
Shah Alam, Selangor

Air Standard
Cycle
For students EM 220 and EM 221 only

Review Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle was introduced as the most efficient heat
engine that operate between two fixed temperatures TH and TL.
The thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle is given by

th , Carnot

TL
1
TH

Upon derivation the performance of the real cycle is often

measured in terms of its thermal efficiency

Wnet
th
Qin
2

Review Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas equation is defined as

Pv RT
where
m3)

or

PV mRT

P = pressure in kPa
v = specific volume in m3/kg (or V = volume in
R = ideal gas constant in kJ/kg.K
m = mass in kg
T = temperature in K
3 3

The u and h of ideal gases can be expressed as

u u 2 u1 C v (T2 T1 )
h h2 h1 C P (T2 T1 )
u - constant volume process
h - constant pressure process

Review Thermodynamics Processes

According to a law of
Process
isochoric

isobaric

P V n constant

Description
constant volume (V1 = V2)
constant pressure (P1 =
P2)

isothermal

constant temperature
(T1 = T2)

polytropic

-none-

isentropic

constant entropy (S1 = S2)

Result of IGL

P1 P2

T1 T2
V1 V2

T1 T2

P1V1 P2V2
P1 V2

P2 V1

T1

T2

n
n 1

Review Properties of Air

R = 0.2871 kJ/kg.K
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K
k = 1.4
where

R = ideal gas constant

Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = specific heat at constant volume
k = specific heat ratio
6

Introduction
IC Engine combustion of fuel takes place inside an engines
cylinder.

Air-Standard Assumptions
Air continuously circulates in a closed loop.
Always behaves as an ideal gas.
All the processes that make up the cycle are internally
reversible.
The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition
process from an external source.

Air-Standard Assumptions
A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to
its initial state replaces the exhaust process.
The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the
working fluid is air and has constant specific heat
evaluated at room temperature (25oC or 77oF).
No chemical reaction takes place in the engine.

Terminology for Reciprocating Devices

Top dead center (TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke,
bore, intake valve, exhaust valve, clearance volume,
displacement volume, compression ratio, and mean
effective pressure

1
0

 The compression ratio r of an

engine is defined as

V max VBDC

V min VTDC

The mean effective pressure

(MEP) is a fictitious pressure
that, if it operated on the piston
during the entire power stroke,
would
produce
the
same
amount of net work as that
produced during the actual
Wnet
wnet
MEP

cycle.
Vmax Vmin vmax vmin

1
1

Otto Cycle
The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines

1
2

 The processes in the Otto cycle are as per following:

Process

Description

1-2

Isentropic compression

2-3

Constant volume heat addition

3-4

Isentropic expansion

4-1

Constant volume heat rejection

1
3

 Related formula based on basic thermodynamics:

P1 V2

P2 V1

T1
T2

n
n 1

Qin mCv T3 T2
P1 V2

P2 V1

T1

T2

n
n 1

Qout mCv T4 T1
1
4

 Thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle:

Wnet Qnet Qin Qout

Qout
th

1
Qin
Qin
Qin
Qin
Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Qnet ,23 Wnet ,23 U 23

3

Wnet ,23 Wother ,23 Wb ,23 0 PdV 0

2

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23 U 23
Qnet , 23 Qin mCv (T3 T2 )
1
5

 Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.

Qnet ,41 Wnet ,41 U 41
1

Wnet ,41 Wother ,41 Wb ,41 0 PdV 0

Thus, for constant specific heats,

Qnet , 41 U 41
Qnet , 41 Qout mCv (T1 T4 )
Qout mCv (T1 T4 ) mCv (T4 T1 )

The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
th , Otto 1
Qin
mCv (T4 T1 )
1
mCv (T3 T2 )

1
6

 th , Otto

( T4 T1 )
1
(T3 T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
T2 (T3 / T2 1)

Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

T2 V1

T1 V2

k 1

and

T3 V4

T4 V3

k 1

Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1,

T2 T3

T1 T4

T4 T3
or

T1 T2
1
7

 The Otto cycle efficiency becomes

th , Otto 1

T1
T2

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

T2 V1

T1 V2

k 1

T1 V2

T2 V1

k 1

k 1

where the compression ratio is

r = V1/V2 and

th , Otto 1

1
r k 1

1
8

Example 5.1
An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the
working fluid. Initially P1 = 95 kPa, T1 = 17C, and V1 = 3.8
liters. During the heat addition process, 7.5 kJ of heat are
added. Determine all T's, P's, th, the back work ratio and the
mean effective pressure.
Solution:

Data given:

290 K

T1
V1

V2

Q23 7.5 kJ
P1 95 kPa
V1 3.8 Litres

1
9

Example 5.1
Pr ocess 1 2 isentropic compression
T2 V1

T1 V2

k 1

P2 V1

P1 V2

k 1

T2 290 9
P2 95 9

0.4

1.4

698.4 K

2059kPa

Pr ocess 2 3 Const. volume heat addition

0

1 law : Qnet Wnet U

st

Q23 mCv T3 T2
IGL : Pv
1 1 RT1 v1

0.2871 290
95

Q23
v1
q23
Q23 1727 kJ
kg
m
V1

0.875 mkg

2
0

Example 5.1
ButV3 V2

Back to IGL :
q23 Cv T3 T2
0.718 T3 698.4

P3 P2

T3 T2
P3 9.15 MPa

T3 3103.7 K
Pr ocess 3 4 isentropic exp ansion
T4 V3

T3 V4

k 1

P4 V3

P3 V4

T4 T3 1/ 9

0.4

1288.8 K

P4 P3 1/ 9

1.4

422 kPa

2
1

Example 5.1
Pr ocess 4 1 Const. volume heat rejection
Q41 mCv T4 T1
q41 Cv T4 T1

0.718 1288.8 290

717.1 kJ
kg

Then:

Wnet qin qout

q23 q41
1009.6 kJ
kg

th ,Otto

Wnet
0.585 58.5%
qin

22

Example 5.1
What else?

MEP

Wnet
wnet

Vmax Vmin vmax vmin

wnet
wnet

v1 v2 v1 1 v2 / v1

wnet
1009.6

1298 kPa
1
v1 1 r 0.875 1 1/ 9
rbw

wcompr
wexp ans

Cv T2 T1
u12

u34 Cv T3 T4

0.225 22.5%
2
3

Supplementary Problems 5.1

1.

An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of

the compression process, air is at 95 kPa and 27C, and 750 kJ/kg of
heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-addition
process. Taking into account the variation of specific heats with
temperature, determine (a) the pressure and temperature at the end
of the heat addition process, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal
efficiency, and (d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
[(a) 3898 kPa, 1539 K, (b) 392.4 kJ/kg, (c) 52.3 percent,(d ) 495 kPa]

2.

The compression ratio of an air-standard Otto cycle is 9.5. Prior to

the isentropic compression process, the air is at 100 kPa, 35C, and
600 cm3. The temperature at the end of the isentropic expansion
process is 800 K. Using specific heat values at room temperature,
determine (a) the highest temperature and pressure in the cycle; (b)
the amount of heat transferred in, in kJ; (c) the thermal efficiency;
and (d) the mean effective pressure.
[(a) 1969 K, 6072 kPa,(b) 0.59 kJ, (c) 59.4 percent, (d) 652 kPa]

2
4

Diesel Cycle
The processes in the Diesel cycle are as per following:

2
5

Diesel Cycle

v1
Compressio n ratio, rv
v2

and

v3
Cut off ratio, rc
v2
2
6

 Related formula based on basic thermodynamics:

P1 V2

P2 V1

T1
T2

n
n 1

Qin mCP T3 T2
P1 V2

P2 V1

T1
T2

n
n 1

Qout mCv T4 T1
2
7

 Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle

th , Diesel

Wnet
Q
1 out
Qin
Qin

Apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant.

Qnet ,23 Wnet ,23 U 23

3

Wnet ,23 Wother ,23 Wb ,23 0 PdV 0

P2 V3 V2

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23 U 23 P2 (V3 V2 )
Qnet , 23 Qin mCv (T3 T2 ) mR ( T3 T2 )
Qin mC p (T3 T2 )

2
8

 Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant

Qnet ,41 Wnet ,41 U 41

1

Wnet ,41 Wother ,41 Wb ,41 0 PdV 0

4

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41 U 41
Qnet , 41 Qout mCv ( T1 T4 )
Qout mCv (T1 T4 ) mCv (T4 T1 )

The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
Qin
mCv (T4 T1 )
1
mC p (T3 T2 )

th , Diesel 1

2
9

PV
PV
4 4
1 1 where V4 V1
T4
T1
T4 P4

T1 P1

Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

k
k
k
k
PV
and PV
1 1 PV
2 2
4 4 PV
3 3

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by

the first equation and obtain
k

Therefore,

P4 V3
rc k
T4 V2

th , Diesel 1

1
r k 1

rc k 1
k rc 1
3
0

Example 5.2
An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and
a cut-off ratio of 2.5. The state at the beginning of compression
is fixed by P = 0.9 bar ant T = 300K. Calculate:
i. the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
ii. the maximum pressure, Pmax, and
iii. The mean effective pressure.
Solution:
Data given:

V1
18
V2
V3
2.5
V2
3
1

Example 5.2
Pr ocess 1 2 isentropic compression
T2 V1

T1 V2

k 1

T2 300 18

0.4

953.3K

Pr ocess 2 3 Const. pressure heat addition

V3
V2 V3
P2 P3
T3 T2 2383.3 K
T2 T3
V2
Pr ocess 3 4 isentropic exp ansion
V4 V1 V2
. 18 1 / 2.5 7.2
V3 V2 V3
T4 V3

T3 V4

k 1

T4 2383.3 1/ 7.2

0.4

1082 K
3
2

Example 5.2
Qin Q23 mCP T3 T2 qin C p T3 T2 1437.15 kJ
kg
Qout Q41 mCP T4 T1 qout C p T4 T1 561.48 kJ
kg
wnet qin qout 875.67 kJ
kg
What we need?

i th,diesel

wnet
0.6093 60.93%
qin

ii Pmax P2 P3
P2

P1

k 1
k

T2

P2 5148 kPa Pmax
T1
wnet
875.67

969.1 kPa
iii MEP
V1 1 1/ r 0.9566 1 1/18
3
3

Supplementary Problems 5.2

1.

An ideal diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20 and uses air as

the working fluid. The state of air at the beginning of the
compression process is 95 kPa and 20C. If the maximum
temperature in the cycle is not to exceed 2200 K, determine (a) the
thermal efficiency and (b) the mean effective pressure. Assume
constant specific heats for air at room temperature.
[ (a) 63.5 percent, (b) 933 kPa]

2.

An ideal diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 to 1. The

maximum cycle temperature is 1700C and the minimum cycle
temperature is 15C. Calculate:
i.
the specific heat transfer to the cycle
ii. the specific work of the cycle
iii. the thermal efficiency of the cycle

3
4

Dual Cycle

Dual cycle gives a better approximation to a real engine. The

heat addition process is partly done at a constant volume and
partly at constant pressure. From the P-v diagram, it looks like
the heat addition process is a combination of both Otto and
Diesel cycles.
3
5

Dual Cycle

The same procedure as to Otto and Diesel cycles can be applied to

Dual cycle. Upon substitutions, the thermal efficiency of Dual
cycle becomes

th 1

rp rck 1

1 k c p rc 1 rvk 1

3
6

Example 5.3
At the beginning of the compression process of an air-standard
dual cycle with a compression ratio of 18, the temperature is
300 K and the pressure is 1 bar. The pressure ratio for the
constant volume part of the heating process is 1.5 to 1. The
volume ratio for the constant pressure part of the heating
process is 1.2 to 1. Determine (a) the thermal efficiency and (b)
the mean effective pressure. (WRONG SOLUTION!!)
Solution:
Data given:

V1
18
V2

P1
1.5
P2

T1 300 K

V4
1.2
V3

P1 1bar

3
7

Pr ocess 1 2 isentropic compression

T2 V1

T1 V2

k 1

T2 300 18

0.4

953.3K

Pr ocess 2 3 Const. pressure heat addition

V3
V2 V3
P2 P3
T3 T2 2383.3 K
T2 T3
V2
Pr ocess 3 4 isentropic exp ansion
V4 V1 V2
. 18 1 / 2.5 7.2
V3 V2 V3
T4 V3

T3 V4

k 1

T4 2383.3 1/ 7.2

0.4

1082 K
3
8

Pr ocess 4 5 isentropic exp ansion

T5 V4

T4 V5

k 1

T5 T4

4
V

V
5

k 1

V4
T4
V3

V3

V5

k 1

1715.94 1.2
584.85 K
1
18

0.4

Information needed?

Qout Q51 mCv T5 T1 204.52 kJ

kg
Qin Q23 Q34 mCv T3 T2 mC p T4 T3
629.65 kJ
kg

3
9

Answer the questions ?

Wnet Qin Qout

Qout
204.52
a

0.675 67.5%
th
Qin
Qin
Qin
629.65
Wnet
b MEP
v1 1 1r
425.13

0.8613 1 181
522.63 kPa

4
0

Criteria of Performance

Indicated power (IP)

Brake power (bp)
Friction power (fp) and mechanical efficiency, m
Brake mean effective pressure (bmep), thermal
efficiency and fuel consumption
Volumetric efficiency, v

4
1

Indicated Power
Defined as the rate of work done by the gas on the
piston as evaluated from an indicator diagram obtained
from the engine using the electronic engine indicator.
ip = work done per cycle cycle per minute
For four-stroke engine,

pi LANn
IP
2
And for two-stroke engine,

n is the number of cylinders.

IP pi LANn
4
2

Indicated Power
Indicated mean effective pressure, pi given by:,

net area of diagram

pi
constant
length of diagram

work done per cycle

pi
displacement volume

For one engine cylinder

Work done per cycle = pi A
L
Where A = area of piston
L = length of stroke
Power output = (work done per cycle) x (cycle per
minute)
ip P AL cycle per unit time
i

For four-stoke engines, the number of cycles per unit time

is N/2 and for two-stroke engines the number of cycles per
unit time is N, where N is the engine speed.

4
3

Brake Power
Brake power is a way to measure the engine power output.

The engine is connected to a brake (or dynamometer) which

can be loaded so that the torque exerted by the engine can
be measured.

The torque is obtained by reading off a net load, w at known

radius, r.

Wr
4
4

Therefore

bp 2N

Brake power is also can be expressed as

m pi LANn Pb LANn
bp m IP

2
2

Then the brake mean effective pressure (Pb) is

Pb m Pi
4
5

Friction Power

The difference between the Ip and bp is the friction power

(fp). It is the power that overcome the frictional resistance
of the engine parts.

fp IP bp
4
6

Mechanical Efficiency

Power input to the shaft is usually bigger than the

indicated power due to frictional losses or the
mechanical efficiency.

mech

brake power

indicated power

4
7

Brake Mean Effective Pressure

From the definition of Brake power

Since

pi LANn
IP
2

BP m IP

for 4 stroke engine

and

m pi LANn Pb LANn
bp

2
2

Since m and Pi are difficult to obtain, they may be combined and

replaced by a brake mean effective pressure, Pb

Pb LANn
2NT
2

Equating this equation to another definition of bp:

So:

Its observed that bmep is proportional to torque.

4
Pb
T
LAn

4
8

Brake Thermal Efficiency

The power output of the engine is obtained from the chemical energy of
the fuel supplied. The overall engine efficiency is given by the brake
thermal efficiency,

bp

bp
bp
brake power
brake power

power given fuel equivalent power Pfe m f Qnet ,v

mf = mass flow fuel , Qnet,v = net calarofic value of the fuel.

4
9

Specific Fuel Consumption

sfc is the mass flow rate of fuel consumed per unit power
output and is a criterion of economical power production.

sfc

m f
bp

5
0

Volumetric Efficiency

The parameter used to measure the effectiveness of an

engines induction process is the volumetric efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency is only used with four-stroke cycle
engine, which have a distinct induction process.

V
V
Vs

5
1

Example 5.4
An engine operating at 2400 rpm consumes 12 ml of fuel (s.g. 0.85) in
60 second. The engine indicates a load of 30 N on the pony brake
system and the brakes torque arm is 20 cm. Determine (a) the brake
power, (b) the mass flow rate of fuel, and (c) the specific fuel
consumption.
Solution:

5
2

Example 5.4
A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57 mm and a stroke of 90
mm. Its rated speed is 2800 rpm and it is tested at this speed against a
brake which has a torque arm of 0.356 m. The net brake load is 155 N
and the fuel consumption is 6.741 l/h. The specific gravity of the petrol
used is 0.735 and it has a net calorific value of 44,200 kJ/kg. The
engine is tested in an atmospheric condition at 101.325 kPa and 15 oC
at air-fuel ratio of 14.5/1. Calculate for this speed, the engine torque,
the bmep, the brake thermal efficiency, the specific fuel consumption
Solution:
and
the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

5
3

Real Case

pi LANn
IP
2

bp 2N

5
4