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    Karthik Abhi
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    Active technique [5] [6] [7]: it is based on the same principle as passive cancellation, which is the creation of an appropriate destructive echo, which would cancel the real echo of the target to the radar. The target will emit electromagnetic energy synchronized with the received radar energy to minimize the reflected signal. 1.2 Benefits of high manoeuvrability in combat Manoeuvrability can be defined as the rate at which an aircraft can change speed, altitude, and direction in any desired combination. Another important characteristic of a fighter aircraft is its Agility that measures the rate change of manoeuvrability with respect to time. Erich Hartmann, world’s top fighter pilot in WW II who had 352 confirmed air-to-air kills had a formula of formula: See – Decide – Attack – Coffee Break [8]. The whole purpose of an air combat is to be superior in agility in order to evade a pursuer and corner a quarry. It relies on offensive and defensive basic fighter manoeuvres to gain an advantage over an opponent. This can be achieved with high manoeuvrability only. In any combat manoeuvre, energy gets quickly depleted. Instead of using kinetic energy (speed) to chase the enemy or potential energy (altitude) to get rid of the enemy, if the aircraft is highly manoeuvrable, the Excess Power, (T-D)*V/W of the aircraft can be used to engage with the enemy, kill the targets, disengage and quickly get into a safe position. The initial advantage goes to the pilot who enters combat with most aircraft energy either in terms of speed (kinetic energy) and/or altitude (potential energy), and can manoeuvre over the enemy in quick time. Also when locked by the enemy missile radar or IR trackers, if the aircraft is agile (can quickly manoeuvre), it can survive against the missiles that are not as agile as the aircraft itself. 1.3 Comparison of the benefits of stealth over manoeuvrability in combats The stand taken by self is that, in aerial combat a highly manoeuvrable fighter aircraft is preferred over a Stealth fighter. The logical arguments for the stand taken here are discussed below. Low radar signature (Stealth aircrafts) means, the target can be detected and tracked by radar at a shorter distance only. It does not mean the aircraft has complete disappearance from the radar screens. Usually in an air-to-air combat, the enemy fires a missile at the target from a close in range only in order to achieve 100% kill rate. But the missile exhaust is a brilliant flame and being visible from a long distance it can be visually tracked by the target pilot. This coupled with the fact that missiles are less manoeuvrable than the fighter itself and hence have difficulty following an agile fighter, they too often miss their target if the target is agile. The result is usually a close range dogfight where the cannon/gun is the proven weapon; at such ranges, the missile is unusable and hence harmless. Stealth aircrafts have higher flyaway and maintenance costs, while they have significant operational limitations due to the specific aircraft shape imposed and materials used. Also due to their limited ability to carry fuel and weapons internally, they become inefficient in an air-to-air combat scenario. Further, having realized the capabilities of stealth aircrafts, many countries have been developing anti-stealth technologies like the multistatic radars, very low frequency radars, over-the-horizon radars and sensitive IR sensor systems. Be it a highly manoeuvrable fighter or a stealth aircraft, when under attack, the target always tries to turn into the enemy as quickly as possible because turning away will make it easier for the enemy to kill you. And this turn has to be done at a very fast rate. If the aircraft is not agile, it falls prey to the enemy. Most of the aerial attacks are ambushed ones, where manoeuvrability is the key. Superior pilot skill to tackle the enemy is the most important factor in any aerial combat. To achieve this, it is b

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    Active technique [5] [6] [7]: it is based on the same principle as passive cancellation, which is the creation of an appropriate destructive echo, which would cancel the real echo of the target to the radar. The target will emit electromagnetic energy synchronized with the received radar energy to minimize the reflected signal. 1.2 Benefits of high manoeuvrability in combat Manoeuvrability can be defined as the rate at which an aircraft can change speed, altitude, and direction in any desired combination. Another important characteristic of a fighter aircraft is its Agility that measures the rate change of manoeuvrability with respect to time. Erich Hartmann, world’s top fighter pilot in WW II who had 352 confirmed air-to-air kills had a formula of formula: See – Decide – Attack – Coffee Break [8]. The whole purpose of an air combat is to be superior in agility in order to evade a pursuer and corner a quarry. It relies on offensive and defensive basic fighter manoeuvres to gain an advantage over an opponent. This can be achieved with high manoeuvrability only. In any combat manoeuvre, energy gets quickly depleted. Instead of using kinetic energy (speed) to chase the enemy or potential energy (altitude) to get rid of the enemy, if the aircraft is highly manoeuvrable, the Excess Power, (T-D)*V/W of the aircraft can be used to engage with the enemy, kill the targets, disengage and quickly get into a safe position. The initial advantage goes to the pilot who enters combat with most aircraft energy either in terms of speed (kinetic energy) and/or altitude (potential energy), and can manoeuvre over the enemy in quick time. Also when locked by the enemy missile radar or IR trackers, if the aircraft is agile (can quickly manoeuvre), it can survive against the missiles that are not as agile as the aircraft itself. 1.3 Comparison of the benefits of stealth over manoeuvrability in combats The stand taken by self is that, in aerial combat a highly manoeuvrable fighter aircraft is preferred over a Stealth fighter. The logical arguments for the stand taken here are discussed below. Low radar signature (Stealth aircrafts) means, the target can be detected and tracked by radar at a shorter distance only. It does not mean the aircraft has complete disappearance from the radar screens. Usually in an air-to-air combat, the enemy fires a missile at the target from a close in range only in order to achieve 100% kill rate. But the missile exhaust is a brilliant flame and being visible from a long distance it can be visually tracked by the target pilot. This coupled with the fact that missiles are less manoeuvrable than the fighter itself and hence have difficulty following an agile fighter, they too often miss their target if the target is agile. The result is usually a close range dogfight where the cannon/gun is the proven weapon; at such ranges, the missile is unusable and hence harmless. Stealth aircrafts have higher flyaway and maintenance costs, while they have significant operational limitations due to the specific aircraft shape imposed and materials used. Also due to their limited ability to carry fuel and weapons internally, they become inefficient in an air-to-air combat scenario. Further, having realized the capabilities of stealth aircrafts, many countries have been developing anti-stealth technologies like the multistatic radars, very low frequency radars, over-the-horizon radars and sensitive IR sensor systems. Be it a highly manoeuvrable fighter or a stealth aircraft, when under attack, the target always tries to turn into the enemy as quickly as possible because turning away will make it easier for the enemy to kill you. And this turn has to be done at a very fast rate. If the aircraft is not agile, it falls prey to the enemy. Most of the aerial attacks are ambushed ones, where manoeuvrability is the key. Superior pilot skill to tackle the enemy is the most important factor in any aerial combat. To achieve this, it is b

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    8 views47 pages

    ACD505 Session 08

    Uploaded by

    Karthik Abhi
    Active technique [5] [6] [7]: it is based on the same principle as passive cancellation, which is the creation of an appropriate destructive echo, which would cancel the real echo of the target to the radar. The target will emit electromagnetic energy synchronized with the received radar energy to minimize the reflected signal. 1.2 Benefits of high manoeuvrability in combat Manoeuvrability can be defined as the rate at which an aircraft can change speed, altitude, and direction in any desired combination. Another important characteristic of a fighter aircraft is its Agility that measures the rate change of manoeuvrability with respect to time. Erich Hartmann, world’s top fighter pilot in WW II who had 352 confirmed air-to-air kills had a formula of formula: See – Decide – Attack – Coffee Break [8]. The whole purpose of an air combat is to be superior in agility in order to evade a pursuer and corner a quarry. It relies on offensive and defensive basic fighter manoeuvres to gain an advantage over an opponent. This can be achieved with high manoeuvrability only. In any combat manoeuvre, energy gets quickly depleted. Instead of using kinetic energy (speed) to chase the enemy or potential energy (altitude) to get rid of the enemy, if the aircraft is highly manoeuvrable, the Excess Power, (T-D)*V/W of the aircraft can be used to engage with the enemy, kill the targets, disengage and quickly get into a safe position. The initial advantage goes to the pilot who enters combat with most aircraft energy either in terms of speed (kinetic energy) and/or altitude (potential energy), and can manoeuvre over the enemy in quick time. Also when locked by the enemy missile radar or IR trackers, if the aircraft is agile (can quickly manoeuvre), it can survive against the missiles that are not as agile as the aircraft itself. 1.3 Comparison of the benefits of stealth over manoeuvrability in combats The stand taken by self is that, in aerial combat a highly manoeuvrable fighter aircraft is preferred over a Stealth fighter. The logical arguments for the stand taken here are discussed below. Low radar signature (Stealth aircrafts) means, the target can be detected and tracked by radar at a shorter distance only. It does not mean the aircraft has complete disappearance from the radar screens. Usually in an air-to-air combat, the enemy fires a missile at the target from a close in range only in order to achieve 100% kill rate. But the missile exhaust is a brilliant flame and being visible from a long distance it can be visually tracked by the target pilot. This coupled with the fact that missiles are less manoeuvrable than the fighter itself and hence have difficulty following an agile fighter, they too often miss their target if the target is agile. The result is usually a close range dogfight where the cannon/gun is the proven weapon; at such ranges, the missile is unusable and hence harmless. Stealth aircrafts have higher flyaway and maintenance costs, while they have significant operational limitations due to the specific aircraft shape imposed and materials used. Also due to their limited ability to carry fuel and weapons internally, they become inefficient in an air-to-air combat scenario. Further, having realized the capabilities of stealth aircrafts, many countries have been developing anti-stealth technologies like the multistatic radars, very low frequency radars, over-the-horizon radars and sensitive IR sensor systems. Be it a highly manoeuvrable fighter or a stealth aircraft, when under attack, the target always tries to turn into the enemy as quickly as possible because turning away will make it easier for the enemy to kill you. And this turn has to be done at a very fast rate. If the aircraft is not agile, it falls prey to the enemy. Most of the aerial attacks are ambushed ones, where manoeuvrability is the key. Superior pilot skill to tackle the enemy is the most important factor in any aerial combat. To achieve this, it is b

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    of 47

    Session 08

    Aircraft Manoeuvrability

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    Session Speaker
    M. Sivapragasam

    1
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Session Objectives
    At the end of this session, student will be able to:

    Define manoeuvrability of an aircraft


    Explain the handling characteristics of an aircraft
    Estimate control surface effectiveness
    Estimate hinge moments
    Estimate stick forces
    Describe control reversal

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    2
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Manoeuvrability
    Manoeuvre is an airplane executing
    aerobatics in a the sky
    Or multiple airplanes engaged in
    aerial combat
    Generally Manoeuvres are difficult to
    quantify,
    especially in an analytical framework.

    Basically, most manoeuvres are


    comparatively mundane and simply
    involve changing from one trimmed
    flight condition to another.

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Manoeuvrability
    When a pilot wishes to manoeuvre away
    from the current flight condition he applies
    control inputs
    This upsets the equilibrium trim state by
    producing forces and moments to
    manoeuvre the aeroplane toward the
    desired flight condition.
    The temporary out of trim forces and
    moments cause the aeroplane to
    accelerate in a sense determined by the
    combined action of the control inputs.
    Manoeuvring flight is also referred to as
    accelerated flight

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Manoeuvrability
    The main aerodynamic force
    producing device in an aeroplane is
    the wing,
    Wing lift acts normal to the direction
    of flight in the plane of symmetry.
    Normal manoeuvring involves
    rotating the airframe in roll, pitch and
    yaw to point the lift vector in the
    desired direction
    Simultaneous adjustment of both
    angle of attack and speed enables 5

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Manoeuvre Example
    During turning flight the aeroplane is
    rolled to the desired bank angle
    Horizontal component of lift causes the
    aeroplane to turn in the desired
    direction.

    Simultaneous increase in pitch is


    required to generate more lift such
    that the vertical component is
    sufficient to balance the weight of
    the aeroplane.
    to maintain level flight in the turn.

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Manoeuvre Example
    When the pilot pulls back stick the
    aeroplane pitches up to generate an
    increased lift force
    this results in out-of-trim normal
    acceleration the pilot senses the change
    in acceleration.
    The pilot senses what appears to be an
    increase in the weight through increase
    g and is said to be pulling g.
    If the increased acceleration is in the
    direction of existing acceleration , then it
    is called +g
    7
    If it is against then it is called -g

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Manoeuvre stability
    Standard definition of stability implies that
    when aircraft is disturbed from Trim it
    should recover Trim condition
    However, during manoeuvre pilot
    deliberately causes it to go out of trim.
    Accelerations are continually varying in
    all directions, the analysis becomes very
    involved
    Hence analytical formulations have been
    developed where the acceleration is
    constant.
    Manoeuvres which can be flown at
    8
    constant normal acceleration are the

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Manoeuvre stability
    For the purpose of analysis the loop
    is simplified to a pull-up,
    This is just a small segment of the
    circular flight path.

    Since the steady acceleration is


    constrained to the plane of symmetry
    the problem simplifies to the analysis
    of longitudinal manoeuvre stability
    The motion is steady, hence the
    analysis is a simple extension of that
    applied to longitudinal static stability

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Handling
    Analysis leads to the concept of the
    longitudinal manoeuvre margin,
    the stability margin in manoeuvring
    flight,
    And control parameters like stick
    movement per g and stick force per g.
    Manoeuvrability of an airframe is a critical
    factor in its overall flying and handling
    qualities.
    Large manoeuvre stability means that
    large control displacements and forces
    Low value could lead to the pilot
    10

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Phases of Flight

    Radial Force = m* v

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    / r ; accn = v2 / r = n*g

    11
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Steady Pull-up Manoeuvre


    An aeroplane flying in level flight at
    speed V0 is subject to a small
    elevator input which causes it to
    pull up with steady pitch rate q. (see
    figure below)

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    12
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Steady Pull-up
    In order to sustain flight in the
    vertical circle it is necessary that the
    lift L balances not only the weight
    mg but the centrifugal force also
    Lift is greater than the weight and L
    = nmg, where n is the normal load
    factor.
    This load factor quantifies the total
    lift necessary to maintain the
    manoeuvre and in steady level flight
    13
    n=1.

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Steady Pull-up
    The centrifugal force balance is therefore
    n*m*g m*g = m *V0* q
    given by
    m*g(n-1) = m* V0* q
    L mg = mV0q
    Incremental normal load factor is :
    n = (n 1) = V0q / g
    Aircraft is pitching up steadily the tail
    plane experiences an increase in incidence
    T due to the pitch manoeuvre (see
    figure)
    For perturbations and eliminating q we get

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    14
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Effect on Tail plane

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    15
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Manoeuvrability
    In steady level flight velocity V 0 is to
    usual variables C L w lift coefficient etc

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    16
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Pitching moment equation

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    17
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Pitching moment equation

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    18
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Pitching moment equation

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    19
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Pitching moment equation

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    20
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Stick Fixed Manoeuvre point

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    21
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Stick Fixed Manoeuvre Stability

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    22
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Coupled Effects

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    23
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Dutch Roll

    Some of our Gliders show this !!

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    24
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Stability Derivatives

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    25
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Control Surface Deflections

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    26
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Control Surface Effectiveness :


    Flap Example

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    27
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Hinge Moments

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    28
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Estimation of Stick Forces

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    29
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Stick Fixed and Stick Free

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    30
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Fixed and Free Margin

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    31
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Stick Force

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    32
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Control Issues : Aileron


    Reversal

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    33
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Control Types

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    34
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Types of Control Systems

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    35
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Deviations from our


    assumptions
    Assumed linear aerodynamics
    Lift coefficient CL depends on linearly
    Not valid for higher AOA

    Ignored compressibility effects


    Nowhere dependence on Mach number
    included
    For M> 0.7 has to be considered

    Assumed aircraft as a rigid body


    No deformation of aircraft components
    under all load conditions

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    36
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    High speed effects

    Lift curve slope a varies drastically near M=1


    Aerodynamics centre a.c shifts backwards
    Cm0 becomes more +ve while for zero lift
    increases

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    37
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Aero-elastic effects

    Effect of aero elasticity is to reduce lift curve slope,


    proportional to dynamics pressure
    Combined M and aero elastic effects are shown above

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    38
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Fly-By-Wire Basis
    If the computer has final authority on the
    commands sent to the control system.
    The pilots inputs should be limited by the computer
    (hard limits or protections) to prevent exceeding the
    physical design limits of the aircraft (e.g., angle of
    attack, g loads, etc.) to protect the integrity and
    dynamics of the aircraft.

    If the pilot has final authority of the commands


    sent to the control system.
    The computer should monitor the pilots inputs for limits
    (soft limits) and warn when they exceed the physical
    design limits of the aircraft
    But carry out the commands even if that would
    endanger the aircraft integrity or flight.

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    39
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Stability and Controllability

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    40
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Handling Qualities
    Controls must feel right to pilot
    Control parameters (gains, damping, etc.)
    are unique to each aircraft and thus must
    be tuned
    typically through wind tunnel and flight
    tests

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    41
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    High AOA Problems


    1. Modern combat aircraft fly at very
    high AOA and these are associated
    with some issues which need to be
    addressed.
    Wing Rock
    Roll and Yaw Divergence

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    42
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Wing Rock
    Wing rock phenomenon is manifested by a
    limit cycle oscillation predominantly in roll
    about the body axis.
    This self-induced rolling oscillation is highly
    annoying to the pilot and poses serious
    limitation to the combat effectiveness.
    The maneuvering envelope of an aircraft
    exhibiting this behavior is also seriously
    restricted
    maximum angle of attack (AOA) is often limited
    by the onset of wing rock before the
    occurrence of stall.

    In addition, the wing rock can be a safety

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    43

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Wing Rock
    The final state is generally stable and
    characterized by both large roll attitudes
    and coupling with directional modes.
    Handling qualities are obviously
    compromised and the maneuvering
    capabilities degrade in terms of the
    maximum achievable angle of attack.
    Moreover the presence of wing rock in the
    approach or landing phase can have very
    serious consequences on the operational
    safety of the aircraft.
    This phenomenon, arising from a nonlinear
    44
    aerodynamic mechanism.

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Wing Rock
    Has been documented in flight at a high
    angle of attack.
    On configurations with slender forebodies and
    highly swept wing plan forms combined with
    leading edge extensions

    High speed civil transport and combat


    aircraft can fly under conditions where this
    self-induced oscillatory rolling motion is
    observed.
    The aerodynamic regime on these
    configurations is dominated by vortical
    flows.
    During wing rock oscillations, the normal

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    45

    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Roll and Yaw Departures


    The roll reversal phenomenon is one in
    which the aircraft rolls in the opposite
    direction to aileron input.
    The roll due to adverse yaw overpowers
    the proverse roll due to ailerons.
    The directional instability/directional
    departure may cause the aircraft to depart
    from controlled flight and enter into a spin.
    Whether the aircraft can develop a steady
    spin depends on the balance between the
    inertial and aerodynamic moments

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    46
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

    Summary
    In this session following topics were discussed:

    Manoeuvrability of an aircraft
    Handling characteristics of an aircraft
    Estimation of control surface effectiveness
    Estimation of hinge moments
    Estimation of stick forces
    Control reversal

    aculty of Engineering & Technology

    47
    M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

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