Facilitating learning:

A Meta-cognitive
Process

If you teach a person what to

learn, you are preparing that
person for the past. If you teach
a person how to learn, you are
preparing that person for its
future.

- Cyril Houle

Teaching giving/transferring
Learning acquiring/accepting
EDUCATIVE PROCESS
Learner given focus
Teacher prime mover
Learning Environment headway

Learner embodied spirit

Sentient body
- rational soul
Experiencing sensation
- self-reflection
- free will
- intellectual abstractions

cognitive & affective faculties

instinct feelings
imagining emotions
intellect
free rational
memory
volition

Influences/different Factors to become

Different to each other:
- environment/home
- biological aspect
- Teacher
- Personal attributes
- Professional attributes
Badge of Profession sense of service
(teacher)
Effective doing the right thing
Efficiency time, effort, motivation, method

7ms should be
Managed:
MMMMMMM-

oney
aterials
oment
anpower
achine
arket
anner

P lanning
O
rganizing
L eading
C
ontrolling
S taffing

LEARNER-CENTERED
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The following 14 psychological
factors pertain to the learner and the
learning process. They focus on
psychological factors that are primarily
internal to and under the control of the
learner rather than conditioned habits
or physiological factors. However, the
principles also attempt to acknowledge
external environment or contextual
factors that interact with these internal
factors.

The principles are intended to deal

holistically with learners in the context
of real-world learning situations. Thus,
they are best understood as an
organized set of principles; no principle
should be viewed in isolation. The 14
principles are divided into those
referring to 1)cognitive and metacognitive, 2)motivational and affective,
3)developmental and social, and
4)individual
difference
factors
influencing learners and learning.

Cognitive and Meta-cognitive

Factors
1. Nature of the learning process
. learning of complex subject matter
2. Goals of the learning process
. can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge
. can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.

4. Strategic thinking
can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking
beyond thinking/ deepening of
knowledge
6. Context of learning
influenced by environmental factors

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional
influences on Learning
What and how much is learned?
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
learner's creativity, higher order
thinking, and natural curiosity (w/in
yourself)
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty
9. Effects of motivation and effort
acquisition of complex knowledge and

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning
different opportunities and constraints for
learning physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains.
* appropriateness of material
* intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains
* macro skills interest and level of the student
* prior or past experiences from school, home,
culture, and community factors.
* early and continuing parental language
interactions and two-way
* awareness and understanding of development
differences among children understand

11. Social influences on learning

influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning
different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and
heredity.

13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when
differences in learners' linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are
taken into account.
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing
the learner as well as learning
progress including diagnostic, process,
and outcome assessment are integral
parts of the learning process.

Alexander & Murphy summary of

the 14 Principles:
1. The knowledge base
2. Strategic processing and control
3. Motivation and affective
4. Development and Individual
differences
5. Situation or context

Review of the
Developmental
Theories

Freud
3 Components of
Personality
5 Psychosexual Stages
of development

Erikson
8 Psycho-social
Stages of
Development

Piaget
4 Stages of Cognitive
Development

Theories
Related To
The
Learners
Developme
nt

Kohlberg
3 Stages and 6
Substances of Moral
Development

Vygotsky
On Language
Zone of Proximal
Development

Brofenbrenner
Bio-Ecological
System

Freud Psycho-Sexual
Theory
Freud proposed that there were 5
stages
of
development.
Freud
believed that few people successfully
completed all 5 of the stages.
Instead, he felt that most people tied
up their libido at one of the stages,
which prevented them from using
that energy at a later stage.

Stage

Erogenous Zone

Oral (birth to 18
months)

Mouth

Anal (18-32 months)

Anus

Phallic (3 6 years)

Genitals

Latency (6- puberty)

Genital (puberty +)

Genitals

Fixation
Drinking , eating,
smoking or nail biting
Anal retentive and anal
expulsive
Oedipus Complex and
Electra Complex

Piagets Stages of
Cognitive Development
The principle goal of education
is to create men who are
capable of doing new things
,not simply to repeating what
other generaions have done
men who are creative, inventive
and discovers.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive
development theory
Children "construct"
their understanding of
the world through their
active involvement and
interactions.
Studied his 3 children to
focus not on what they
knew but how they knew
it.
Described children's
understanding as their
"schemas and how they
use:
assimilation
accommodation.

 Schema:
The term schema to refer to the
cognitive structures by which individuals
intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment.

Assimilation:
This is the process of fitting a new
experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema.

Accommodation:
This is the process of creating a new
schema.

 Equilibration
Achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation

Disequilibrium
this means there is a discrepancy
between what is perceived and what
is understood. We then exert effort
through assimilation and
accommodation to establish
equilibriumonce more.

Piagets Cognitive Development Stages

Sensori-motor
Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his
senses and motor abilities to
understand the world
Pre-operation
Ages 2-7: the child uses metal
representations of objects and is able
to use symbolic thought and language
Concrete operations
Ages 7-11; the child uses logical
operations or principles when solving
problems
Formal operations
Ages 12 up; the use of logical
operations in a systematic fashion and
with the ability to use abstractions

Piagets Cognitive Development

Stages
Stage 1 : Sensory Motor Stage.(birth
to infancy)
This is the stage when child who is
initially reflexive in grasping, sucking,
and reaching becomes more organized
in his movement and activity.

Erikson's Stages of
Psychosocial Development

Stage

Crisis

Maladaptati
on

Malignanc
y

Virtue

Infancy

Trust vs.
Mistrust

Sensory
Distortion

Withdrawal

Hope

Early Adulthhood

Autonomy
vs. Shame &
Doubt

Impulsivity

Compulsion

Will Power

Pre-school

Initiative vs.
Guilt

ruthlessness

Inhibition

Purpose

School Age

Industry vs.
Inferiority

Narrow
Virtuosity

Inertia

Competence

Adolescence

Identity vs.
Role
Confusion

Fanaticism

Repudiation

Fidelity

Young Adulthood

Intimacy vs.
Isolation

Promiscuity

Exclusivity

Love

Middle Adulthood

Generativity
vs.
Stagnation

Over
extention

Rejectivity

Care

Maturity

Ego Integrity
vs. Despair

Presumption

Disdain

Wisdom

Kohlbergs Theory of Moral

Development
Assessed moral reasoning by posing
hypothetical moral dilemmas and
examining the reasoning behind peoples
answers
Proposed three distinct levels of moral
reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional
Each level is based on the degree to which a
person conforms to conventional standards of
society
Each level has two stages that represent
different degrees of sophistication in moral
reasoning

Kohlbergs Stages of Moral

Development

Lev Vygotsky
Socio-Cultural Theory

 Definition
Sociocultural theory results from
thedynamic interaction between a person
and thesurrounding social and cultural
forces.
3 claims of Vygotsky
a) Fundamentally shaped by cultural tools
b) Functioning emerges out of social
processes
c) Developmental methods (Zone
ofProximal Development)

 Strategies to utilize the benefits

ofZPD
a) Scaffolding requires
demonstration,while controlling the
environment so that one can take
things step by step.
b) Reciprocal teaching open dialog
between student and teacher which
goesbeyond simple question and
answersession.

 Vygotsky theorized that humandevelopment is

not something that is fixed and eternal. It will
change as aresult of historical development.

Cultural Influences
a) Imitative learning
b) Instructed learning
c)Collaborative learning

Principles
a) Cognitive development is limited to acertain range at
any given age.
b) Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

5 Main Points
a) Use of Zone ofProximal Development
b) Interaction with other people is important
forcognitive growth
c) Culture canmake daily living more
efficient and effective.
d) Advanced mental methods start through
social activities.
e) Increase of theindependent use of
language and thought during a childs first
fewyears of life.

Developmental Systems
Theory
The belief that
development can't be
explained by a single
concept, but rather by a
complex system

Urie
Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory or
bioecological theory
The varied systems of the
environment and the
interrelationships among
the systems shape a
child's development.
Both the environment and
biology influence the
child's development.
The environment affects
the child and the child
influences the

environment

Bronfenbrenners Bio-Ecological
Model

The microsystem - activities and

interactions in the child's immediate
surroundings: parents, school,
friends, etc.
The mesosystem - relationships among
the entities involved in the child's
microsystem: parents' interactions
with teachers, a school's interactions
with the daycare provider
The exosystem - social institutions
which affect children indirectly: the
parents' work settings and policies,
extended family networks, mass media,
community resources
The macrosystem - broader cultural
values, laws and governmental
resources
The chronosystem - changes which occur
during a child's life, both
personally, like the birth of a
sibling and culturally, like the Iraqi
war.

Outline of 20th Century Theories

Psychoanalytical Theories
Psychosexual: Sigmund Freud
Psychosocial: Erik Erikson
Cognitive Theories
Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget
Socio-cultural: Lev Vygotsky
Systems Theories
Ecological Systems: Urie
Bronfenbrenner

Students with Exceptionalities

What is Special Education?
Specially designed instruction, at no cost to
the parents, to meet the unique needs of a
child with a disability.
Before 1975 and the passage of the first
federal special education law, four million
children with disabilities did not receive the
help they needed in school and another one
million were completely excluded from school.

Discrimination and the Beginning of

Change
Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of
Education decision clarifying that separate
cannot be equal, some professionals began
questioning whether separate classes provided
students with disabilities with an appropriate
education
After decades of research, what had become clear
was that the special education was not just a
means of assisting children with disabilities; it
had also become a means of discriminating
against students who might be perceived by
educators as more challenging to reach

Prevalence of Students with

Disabilities
Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has
been estimated that between 10 and 13 percent
of the school-age population has exceptionalities.
Thus, in an average-size classroom of 25
students, it is conceivable that 3 or 4 individuals
will exhibit one or more exceptionalities
Students with specific learning disabilities
represent approximately half of all those receiving
special education, followed by speech or
language impairments, mental retardation, and
emotional disabilities

Prevalence of Students with

Disabilities
In the past decade, the number of
students indentified in having
disabilities has grown significantly
Some suggest that this increase is in
part because of the desire on the
part of educators and parents to give
help to struggling students
What other factors do you think
might contribute to this rise?

Providing an Unwavering
Commitment
At no point in history have we, as a nation, taken
such bold and noble measures to mandate the
educational rights of all children, including those
with disabilities and exceptionalities
Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act and the
guarantee for a free and appropriate public
education, the courts have repeatedly and
consistently ruled that schools simply must
provide the necessary resources to teach all
children, regardless of the physical or mental
handicaps they may manifest.

The Law and Exceptional

Children
PL 94-142 Education for all handicapped
children act (1975)
First law to clearly define the rights of disabled
children to free appropriate public education
It requires the school systems to include the
parents when meeting about the child or making
decisions about his/ her education
It mandated an individualized education program
(IEP) which must include short and long term
goals
It also requires that the child be placed in the
least restrictive environment

Least Restrictive
Environment
"Least restrictive environment" means that a
student who has a disability should have the
opportunity to be educated with non-disabled
peers, to the greatest extent possible.
They should have access to the general education
curriculum, extracurricular activities, or any other
program that non-disabled peers would be able to
access
The student should be provided with
supplementary aids and services necessary to
achieve educational goals if placed in a setting
with non-disabled peers

Individualized Education Program

(IEP)
If team members decide that a student is eligible
for special education, they then prepare an IEP
This document summarizes all of the information
gathered concerning the student, sets the
expectations of what the student will learn over
the next year, and it prescribes the types and
amount of special services the student will
receive.
Must be received and updated annually

Required Components of an
IEP
Must address how the students disability
affects involvement and progress in the
general education
Annual goals and short term objectives
Supplementary aids and services, assistive
technology, participation with peers who
do not have disabilities, accommodations
for testing, dates of effectiveness of IEP

The Law and Exceptional

Children
PL 98-199 Education of the Handicapped
Act Amendments (1983)
Allows for federal funding to create parent
training and information centers so that
parents can learn how to protect the rights
of their child
Also provided financial incentives for
transition services from school to adult
living for students with disabilities

The Law and Exceptional

Children
PL 101-476 Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA)(1990)
Renamed earlier laws and their
amendments
More importantly, it replaced the word
handicapped with the word disabled,
therefore expanding services for these
students
It strengthened the laws commitment to
greater inclusion in community schools

Accomplishments and
Disappointments of Special
Education Law
The passage of federal special education
law was revolutionary and it had many
positive effects; many students who had
been completely left out of the public
school system were now guaranteed an
education
However, the passage of the law did not
address all the issues of educating
students with disabilities

Confidentiality
IDEA specifies that information
regarding a students disability is
highly confidential
That information may not be shared
with anyone who is not directly
working with the student
Once records are not longer needed,
a procedure must be in place so that
they are destroyed

Who Receives Special

Hearing
Education?
Specific learning
disabilities
Speech or
language
impairments
Mental retardation
Emotional
disturbance
Deaf/ blindness
(both)
Visual impairments

impairments
Orthopedic
impairments
Other health
impairments
Autism
Traumatic brain
injury
Multiple disabilities
Developmental
delays

Educational Practices
Inclusive Practiceslots of debates!
Inclusion is a belief system shared by every
member of a school as a learning community
about the responsibility of educating all students
so that they can reach their potential.
Inclusion encompasses students who are gifted
and talented, those who are at risk for failure
because of their life circumstances, those with
disabilities, and those who are average learners.
Accommodationsmark in book, separate
setting, extended time, read alouds, reduced
number of items per page, alternate test

Inclusion
In todays schools, what is considered
inclusive practice varies widely depending
on state and local policies related to
inclusion, the resources available, teacher
and administrator understanding and
commitment, and parent and community
support
It may look like an EC teacher who is in
your room every day for the entire class
period or a few times a week for a class
period

Implications
Exceptional Childrens teachers in North Carolina
are reporting all too often the hardships they face
due to the lack of available resources
The state must do all within its means to secure
the necessary funding of exceptional children so
that no child has to use materials that are worn,
out of date, or even worse, contain information
that is no longer current
It is painfully obvious that state funds are
insufficient to meet the needs of North Carolinas
exceptional children by providing them the
resources that are required for a sound education

What EC teachers are

Saying
Success must never be based on
single test scores
No other issue has raised more
concern with EC teachers than that
of paperwork
HUGE SHORTAGE!!

What about Gifted and Talented

Students?
IDEA does not provide for special
education for these students
Only 30 states mandate education of
students who are gifted and talented
Important to note that sometimes
students with disabilities are also
gifted and talented

What is Giftedness?
Gifted and talented students are those identified
by professionally qualified persons who by virtue
of outstanding abilities are capable of high
performance
Giftedness is evidence of advanced development
across intellectual areas, within a specific
academic or arts-related area, or unusual
organizational power to bring about desired
results
These children may require differentiated
educational programs and services beyond those
normally provided by the regular school program
in order to realize their contribution to self and
society

Prevalence
Estimates vary considerably due to
disagreement over definition
On average, school districts serve
12% of students under the gifted
label
Depending on the state, the
prevalence may range from 2 to 22%
of students being served

Characteristics
Students who are gifted usually display
curiosity, a strong need to know and to
understand how the world works
A student who is gifted may understand
language and mathematics at an earlier
age than is typical and become known to
parents and teachers by these skills
They may bring high energy levels to
school tasks, may display characteristics
of perfectionism

Educational Practices

Ability Grouping
Full time or part time separate classes
Specialized schools
Cluster Grouping
Inclusive practices
Acceleration
Enrichment
Differentiation

Individual Differences
(Student Diversity)
Individual
Differences
Factors

Benefits of
Diversity in the
Classroom
Classroom
Strategies for
Student
Diversity

Individual Differences
Factors
Socioeconomic Status
Thinking/Learning Style
Exceptionalities

Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom
Students' self-awareness is
enhanced by diversity
Student diversity contributes to
cognitive development

Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom

Student diversity prepares

learners for their role as

responsible members of the society

Student diversity can promote
harmony

Classroom Strategies
for Student Diversity

Encourage learners to share their

personal history and experiences
Integrate learning experiences and
activities which promote students'
multicultural
awareness.

and

cross-cultural

Classroom Strategies
for Student Diversity
Aside from highlighting diversity,
identify

patterns

of

unity

that

transcend group differences.

Communicate high expectations to
students from all sub-groups.

 Use varied instructional methods to

accommodate student diversity in
learning styles.
Vary

the

illustrate

examples
concepts

you
in

use

to

order

to

provide multiple contexts that are

relevant to students from diverse
backgrounds.

 Adapt to the students diverse

backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and
decision-making opportunities
concerning what they will learn and
how they will learn it.
Diversify your methods of assessing
and evaluating student learning.

 Purposely, form small-discussion

groups of students from diverse
backgrounds. You can form groups
of students with different learning
styles, different cultural
backgrounds, etc.

Learning/Thinking
styles and multiple
intelligences

LEARNING/THINKING STYLEs
-refer to the preferred way an individual processes
information.
- they describe a persons typical mode of thinking,
remembering or problem solving.

SENSORY PREFERENCES
Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two
types of sensory input and maintain a dominance
in one of the following types :
-Visual Learners
- Auditory Learners
- Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learners

Visual learners- tend to learn better

when a variety of visual aids are used.

Visual- iconic
-refers to those who are
more interested in visual imagery such
as film, graphic displays, pictures.
Visual- symbolic
- refers to those who feel
comfortable with abstract symbolism
such as mathematical formula or the
written word.

AUDITORY LEARNERS- recieve information best by

listening.

Listeners
- they remember things said
to them and make the information their own.
Talkers
- they are the one who
prefer to talk and discuss. ( auditory- verbal
processors)

Tactile/ kinesthetic learnersthey tend to prefer learning by

doing/ experiencing things.

Characteristics of tactile learners:

- Is good at sports.
- Cant sit still for long.
- Is not great at spelling.
- Does not have great handwriting.
- Like science lab.
- Studies with loud music on.
- Like adventure books, movies.
- Likes role playing.
- Takes breaks when studying.
- Builds models.
- Is involved in martial arts, dance
- Is fidgety during lectures.

Globalanalytic continuum
analytic- they tend
toward the linear, step- by- step
processes of learning. (tree seers)
Global- they lean towards
non- linear thought and tend to
see the whole pattern rather than
particle elements.
(forest seers)

Left- brain/
right- brain continuum
left- brained PERSON- is
portrayed as the linear.
(analytic)
right- brained person- is
viewed as non- linear. (global)

Successive processor (left

brain)
- details leading to a
conceptual understanding.
SIMULTANEOUS PROCESSOR
(RIGHT BRAIN)
- general concept going on
to specifics.

LEFT BRAIN( ANALYTIC)

Successive Hemispheric
Style
1. VERBAL
2. RESPONDS TO WORD
MEANING
3. SEQUENTIAL
4. PROSESSES INFORMATION
LINEARLY
5. RESPONDS TO LOGIC
6. PLANS AHEAD
7. RECALLS PEOPLES NAME
8. SPEAKS WITH FEW GESTURES
9. PUNCTUAL
10. PREFERS FORMAL STUDY
DESIGN
11. PREFERS BRIGHT LIGHTS
WHILE STUDYING.

right brain(global)
Simultaneous Hemispheric
Style
1.
2.
3.
4.

VISUAL
RESPONDS TO TONE OF VOICE
RANDOM
PROCESSES INFORMATION
IN VARIED ORDER
5. RESPONDS TO EMOTION
6. IMPULSIVE
7. RECALLS PEOPLE FACES
8. GESTURES WHEN SPEAKING
9. LESS PUNCTUAL
10. PREFERS SOUND/ MUSIC
BACKGROUND WHILE
STUDYING
11. PREFERS FREQUENT MOBILITY
WHILE STUDYING

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
- is an educational theory, first developed by Howard
Gardner, that describes an array of different kinds of
intelligences exhibited by human beings.
Howard Gardner
- he believes that different intelligences may be
independent abilities and all of us possess the
intelligences but in varying degrees of strength and skill.
- the theory was first laid out in Gardners 1983
book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences and has been further refined in subsequent
years.

intelligences
- an ability or set of abilities that allows a person
to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one
or more cultures.
9 DISTINCT FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE
1.VISUAL/ SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE
(pICTURE SMART)
- learning visually and organizing ideas
spatially.
2.VERBAL/ LINGUISTIC (WORD SMART)
- learning through the spoken and written
word.
3. MATHEMATICAL/ LOGICAL ( NUMBER SMART/ LOGIC
SMART)
- learning through reasoning and problem solving.

4. BODILY/ KINESTHETIc ( BODY SMART)

- learning through interaction with ones
environment.
5. MUSICAL (MUSIC SMART)
- learning through patterns, rhythms and music.
6. INTRAPERSONAl (SELF SMART)
- learning through feelings, values and attitudes.
7. INTERPERSONAL (PEOPLE SMART)
- learning through interaction with others.
8. NATURALIST (NATURE SMART)
- learning through classification,categories and
hierarchies.
9. EXISTENTIAL (SPIRIT SMART)
- learning by seeing the big picture

Students with Exceptionalities

What is Special Education?
Specially designed instruction, at no cost
to the parents, to meet the unique needs
of a child with a disability
Before 1975 and the passage of the first
federal special education law, four million
children with disabilities did not receive
the help they needed in school and
another one million were completely
excluded from school

Discrimination and the

Beginning of Change
Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of
Education decision clarifying that separate
cannot be equal, some professionals began
questioning
whether
separate
classes
provided students with disabilities with an
appropriate education
After decades of research, what had become
clear was that the special education was not
just a means of assisting children with
disabilities; it had also become a means of
discriminating against students who might be
perceived by educators as more challenging
to reach

Prevalence of Students with

Disabilities
Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it
has been estimated that between 10 and 13
percent of the school-age population has
exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size
classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable
that 3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or more
exceptionalities
Students with specific learning disabilities
represent approximately half of all those
receiving special education, followed by
speech or language impairments, mental
retardation, and emotional disabilities

Prevalence of Students with

Disabilities
In the past decade, the number of
students
indentified
in
having
disabilities has grown significantly
Some suggest that this increase is in
part because of the desire on the part
of educators and parents to give help
to struggling students
What other factors do you think might
contribute to this rise?

Providing an Unwavering
Commitment
At no point in history have we, as a nation,
taken such bold and noble measures to
mandate the educational rights of all
children, including those with disabilities
and exceptionalities
Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act
and the guarantee for a free and
appropriate public education, the courts
have repeatedly and consistently ruled
that schools simply must provide the
necessary resources to teach all children,
regardless of the physical or mental

The Law and Exceptional Children

PL 94-142 Education for all handicapped
children act (1975)
First law to clearly define the rights of disabled
children to free appropriate public education
It requires the school systems to include the
parents when meeting about the child or making
decisions about his/ her education
It mandated an individualized education program
(IEP) which must include short and long term
goals
It also requires that the child be placed in the
least restrictive environment

Least Restrictive
Environment
"Least restrictive environment" means that a
student who has a disability should have the
opportunity to be educated with non-disabled
peers, to the greatest extent possible.
They should have access to the general education
curriculum, extracurricular activities, or any other
program that non-disabled peers would be able to
access
The student should be provided with
supplementary aids and services necessary to
achieve educational goals if placed in a setting
with non-disabled peers

Individualized Education Program

(IEP)
If team members decide that a student is eligible
for special education, they then prepare an IEP
This document summarizes all of the information
gathered concerning the student, sets the
expectations of what the student will learn over
the next year, and it prescribes the types and
amount of special services the student will
receive.
Must be received and updated annually

Required Components of an
IEP
Must address how the students disability
affects involvement and progress in the
general education
Annual goals and short term objectives
Supplementary aids and services, assistive
technology, participation with peers who
do not have disabilities, accommodations
for testing, dates of effectiveness of IEP

The Law and Exceptional

Children
PL 98-199 Education of the Handicapped
Act Amendments (1983)
Allows for federal funding to create parent
training and information centers so that
parents can learn how to protect the rights
of their child
Also provided financial incentives for
transition services from school to adult
living for students with disabilities

The Law and Exceptional

Children
PL 101-476 Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA)(1990)
Renamed earlier laws and their
amendments
More importantly, it replaced the word
handicapped with the word disabled,
therefore expanding services for these
students
It strengthened the laws commitment to
greater inclusion in community schools

Accomplishments and
Disappointments of Special
Education Law
The passage of federal special education
law was revolutionary and it had many
positive effects; many students who had
been completely left out of the public
school system were now guaranteed an
education
However, the passage of the law did not
address all the issues of educating
students with disabilities

Confidentiality
IDEA specifies that information
regarding a students disability is
highly confidential
That information may not be shared
with anyone who is not directly
working with the student
Once records are not longer needed,
a procedure must be in place so that
they are destroyed

Who Receives Special

Hearing
Education?
Specific learning
disabilities
Speech or
language
impairments
Mental retardation
Emotional
disturbance
Deaf/ blindness
(both)
Visual impairments

impairments
Orthopedic
impairments
Other health
impairments
Autism
Traumatic brain
injury
Multiple disabilities
Developmental
delays

Educational Practices
Inclusive Practiceslots of debates!
Inclusion is a belief system shared by every
member of a school as a learning community
about the responsibility of educating all students
so that they can reach their potential.
Inclusion encompasses students who are gifted
and talented, those who are at risk for failure
because of their life circumstances, those with
disabilities, and those who are average learners.
Accommodationsmark in book, separate
setting, extended time, read alouds, reduced
number of items per page, alternate test

Inclusion
In todays schools, what is considered
inclusive practice varies widely depending
on state and local policies related to
inclusion, the resources available, teacher
and administrator understanding and
commitment, and parent and community
support
It may look like an EC teacher who is in
your room every day for the entire class
period or a few times a week for a class
period

Implications
Exceptional Childrens teachers in North Carolina
are reporting all too often the hardships they face
due to the lack of available resources
The state must do all within its means to secure
the necessary funding of exceptional children so
that no child has to use materials that are worn,
out of date, or even worse, contain information
that is no longer current
It is painfully obvious that state funds are
insufficient to meet the needs of North Carolinas
exceptional children by providing them the
resources that are required for a sound education

What EC teachers are

Saying
Success must never be based on
single test scores
No other issue has raised more
concern with EC teachers than that
of paperwork
HUGE SHORTAGE!!

What about Gifted and Talented

Students?
IDEA does not provide for special
education for these students
Only 30 states mandate education of
students who are gifted and talented
Important to note that sometimes
students with disabilities are also
gifted and talented

What is Giftedness?
Gifted and talented students are those identified
by professionally qualified persons who by virtue
of outstanding abilities are capable of high
performance
Giftedness is evidence of advanced development
across intellectual areas, within a specific
academic or arts-related area, or unusual
organizational power to bring about desired
results
These children may require differentiated
educational programs and services beyond those
normally provided by the regular school program
in order to realize their contribution to self and
society

Prevalence
Estimates vary considerably due to
disagreement over definition
On average, school districts serve
12% of students under the gifted
label
Depending on the state, the
prevalence may range from 2 to 22%
of students being served

Characteristics
Students who are gifted usually display
curiosity, a strong need to know and to
understand how the world works
A student who is gifted may understand
language and mathematics at an earlier
age than is typical and become known to
parents and teachers by these skills
They may bring high energy levels to
school tasks, may display characteristics
of perfectionism

Educational Practices

Ability Grouping
Full time or part time separate classes
Specialized schools
Cluster Grouping
Inclusive practices
Acceleration
Enrichment
Differentiation

MODULE 10

ALBINO, Anne Marie

CANICULA, Marielle
CORDOBA, Joel Mari
DELA CRUZ, Mikko
and
SUAREZ, Rafael Lawrence
together with

Theories of Learning

Sr. Angelina Julom, CSFN

present

Edward Chace
Tolman

Edward Chace Tolman

(1886-1959)
Born in Newton,
Massachusetts
Received academic
degrees in
Electrochemistry and
Psychology (M.A. 1912,
Ph.D. 1915)
He was released from
Northwestern University
for lack of teaching

 His theory of learning can be

looked on as a blend of Gestalt
theory and behaviorism
He saw little value in the
introspective approach
He agreed on molar behavior
rather than molecular behavior

Molar Behavior
Purposive
Tolmans major work was entitled
Purposive Behavior in Animals and
Men
Related to the Gestalt theory
Tolman felt that whole behavior
patterns had a meaning that would
be lost if studied from an elementistic
viewpoint
It is in contrast with the idea of
molecular behavior

Purposive Behaviorism
Explains goal-directed behavior
behavior is PURPOSIVE, COGNITIVE &
MOLAR

Example: the searching behavior of a rat

in a maze will persist until food is found
Goal or Purpose of Rat: To find the food
The purposive behavior is the fact that the rat
still keeps up with the maze

Major Theoretical
Concepts
According to Tolman, taking his lead
from the Gestalt theorists, learning
is essentially a process of
discovering what leads to what
in the environment.
Emphasizer an organisms drive
state determines which aspect of the
environment will be emphasized in
its perceptual field.

 Principle of Least Effort when

an organism chooses the one that
will require the shortest
route/shortcuts or anything that will
only require minimum amount of
energy.

 Cognitive map a picture of

something that an organism
usually is encountering when it
do something.
Example: when a person walks on
the same street everyday, he will
know that when he looks/turns to
his left, he will see this and when
he looks/turns to the right, he will
see that.

Vicarious Trial and Error

Vicarious Trial and Error characteristic of rats wherein
they consistently stop or pause
at choice points.
Tests in this type of trial and
error are
cognitively
Learning
vs.tested
Performance
rather
than behaviorally.
Latent
Learning
learning that
is not translated into
performance

 Tolman and Honzik (1930) ran

an experiment involving 3
groups of rats learning to solve
a maze.
The first group was regularly
reinforced. The second one had
to wait until the 11th day. The
third one was Tolmans interest.
After the experiment, he
concluded that the performance
of those who were reinforced
after the 11th day, compared to
the one which was reinforced
continually, was much better if
not equally better.

 3 things that Tolman observed:

(1) There is a slight improvement
in the performance of the group
that was never really
reinforced.
(2) The reinforced group showed
steady improvement
throughout the duration.
(3) When the reinforcement was
introduced, performance vastly
improved.

 The results from the experiment

proved Tolmans statement that
reinforcements are performance
variable not a learning variable.
Latent Extinction occurs simply
because the organism was
presented in a situation where a
reinforcer is no longer present. Such
extinction does not depend on the
performance of non-reinforced
response.

Response Learning vs. Place Learning

Response Learning learning of

specific responses that are
effective in solving a problem
and thereby providing
reinforcement.
Place learning learning where
an object is located. For Tolman,
once the location of an object is
known, it can be reached by any
number of alternate routes.

Reinforcement
Expectancy

Tolman predicted that if

reinforcers were changed,
behavior would be disrupted
because in Reinforcement
Expectancy, a particular
reinforcer becomes a part of
what is expected.
Cognitive dissonance negative
drive state and the person
experiencing it seeks ways to
reduce it, just as the person

Individual Difference Variables

As per suggested by Tolman,

H = heredity
A = age
T = previous training
E = special endocrine, drug, or
vitamin conditions

Intervening Variables
Created by the theorist to aid in
explaining the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables
In-between behavior and environmental
and individual difference variables
Examples: Demand, Appetite,
Differentiation, Motor Skill, Hypotheses,
Biases

Behaviorist
Perspective

Pavlov,Thorndike,Watson
,Skinner
Behaviorism:

Behaviorism
focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behavior.
It emphasizes that behavior is mostly
learned through conditioning
and
reinforcement
(
rewards
and
punishment )
It does not give much attention to the
mind , and the possibility of thought
processes occurring in the mind.
Contributions in the development of the
behaviorist theory largely
came from
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

a Russian psychologist is
well known for his work in
classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution.

Ivan
Pavlov

Most renowned
experiment involved
meat, a dog and a bell.
Measuring the dogs
salivation in order to
study digestion.

Classical
Conditioning

Stimulus generalization- once the

dog has learned to salivate at the
sound of the bell, it will salivate at
other similar sound.
Extinction- if you stop pairing the
bell with the food, salivation will
eventually cease in response to the
bell.
Spontaneous
recoveryextinguished
responses
can
be
recovered after an elapsed time, but
will soon extinguish again if the dog
is not presented with food.

Discrimination- the dog could

learn to discriminate between
similar bells and discern which bell
would result in the presentation of
food and which would not.
Higher-order conditioning- once
the dog has been conditioned to
associate the bell with the food,
another unconditioned stimulus,
such as a light may be flashed at
the same time that the bell is rung.
Eventually the dog will salivate at
the flash of the light without the

Edwar
d
Thornd
ike

He explained that learning

is the result of associations
forming between stimuli
and
responses.
Such
association
or
habits
become strengthened or
weakened by nature and
frequency
of
the
S-R
pairings.
The main principle of
connectionism was that
learning
could
be
adequately
explained
without considering any
unobservable
internal

Theory of connectionism
- stated that learning has taken place when
a strong connection or bond between stimulus
and response is formed.
Three primary law
1.Law of effect- S-R is strengthened when
the consequence is positive and weakened
when the consequence is negative.
2.Law of exercise- when S-R bond is
practice the stronger it will become.
3.Law of readiness- the more readiness the
learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them.

Principles derived from theory

of connectionism:
1.Learning requires both practice
and
rewards
(law
of
effect/exercise).
2.A series of S-R connection can be
chained together if they belong
to the same action sequence (law
of readiness).
3.Transfer
of
learning
occurs
because previously encountered
situations.
4.Intelligence is a function of the

John
Watson

work with Pavlov's ideas

Considered that humans
are born with a few
reflexes and the emotional
reactions of love and rage.
Experiment on Albert and
a white rat
His work did clearly show
the role of conditioning in
the
development
of
emotional responses to
certain stimuli.

Burrhus
Frederi
ck
Skinner

operant conditioning

Reinforcement
+R-any stimulus
given or added to
increase the response.
-R- any stimulus
that results in the
increased frequency
of a response when it
is withdrawn or
removed.

Albert Bandura:
Social / Observational Learning
Basic Premise
We learn behavior through observation
Vicarious reinforcement: Learn through
observing consequences of behaviors of
others
Modelling
Observe behavior of others and repeat the
behavior
Bobo doll studies (1963)
Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition
through exposure to a model

Factors Influencing Modeling:

Impact Tendency to Imitate
Characteristics of the models:
similarity, age, sex, status, prestige,
simple vs. complex behavior
Characteristics of observers: Low
self-confidence, low self-esteem,
reinforcement for imitation
Reward consequences of behavior:
Directly witnessing associated
rewards

The Observational Learning Process:

4 Steps

Attentional processes
Retention processes
Production processes
Incentive and motivational processes

Step 1: Attentional
Processes
Developing cognitive processes to
pay attention to a model- more
developed processes allow for better
attention
Must observe the model accurately
enough to imitate behavior

Step 2: Retention Processes

To later imitate behavior, must
remember aspects of the behavior
Retain information in 2 ways:
Imaginal internal representation: Visual
image Ex: Forming a mental picture
Verbal system: Verbal description of
behavior Ex: Silently rehearsing steps in
behavior

Step 3: Production Processes

Taking imaginal and verbal
representations and translating into
overt behavior- practice behaviors
Receive feedback on accuracy of
behavior- how well have you imitated
the modeled behavior?
Important in mastering difficult skills
Ex: Driving a car

Step 4: Incentive and Motivational

Processes
With incentives, observation more
quickly becomes action, pay more
attention, retain more information
Incentive to learn influenced by
anticipated reinforcements

Aspects of the Self: Selfreinforcement and Self-efficacy

Self-reinforcement: Rewards or
punishments given to oneself for reaching,
exceeding or falling short of personal
expectations
Ex: Pride, shame, guilt

Self-efficacy: Belief in ability to cope with

life
Meeting standards: Enhances self-efficacy
Failure to meet standards: Reduces self-efficacy

Self-Efficacy
High self-efficacy
Believe can deal effectively with life events
Confident in abilities
Expect to overcome obstacles effectively

Low self-efficacy
Feel unable to exercise control over life
Low confidence, believe all efforts are futile

Sources of Information in
Determining Self-efficacy
Performance attainment
Most influential
Role of feedback
More we achieve, more we believe we
can achieve
Leads to feelings of competency and
control

Sources of Information in
Determining Self-efficacy
Vicarious experience
Seeing others perform successfully
If they can, I can too

Verbal persuasion
Verbal reminders of abilities

Physiological and emotional arousal

Related to perceived ability to cope
Calm, composed feelings: Higher self-efficacy
Nervous, agitated feelings: Lower self-efficacy

Developmental Stages of Modeling

and Self-efficacy
Childhood
Infancy: Direct modeling immediately
following observation, develop selfefficacy with control over environment
By age 2: Developed attentional,
retention and production processes to
model behavior some time after
observation, not immediately

Developmental Stages of Modeling

and Self-efficacy
Adolescence
Involves coping with new demands
Success depends on level of self-efficacy
established during childhood

Developmental Stages of Modeling

and Self-efficacy
Adulthood: 2 Periods
Young adulthood:
Adjustments: Career, marriage, parenthood
High self-efficacy to adjust successfully

Middle adulthood:
Adjustment: Reevaluate career, family life
Need to find opportunities to continue to
enhance self-efficacy

Developmental Stages of Modeling

and Self-efficacy
Old age:
Decline in mental/physical function,
retirement
Requires reappraisal of abilities
Belief in ability to perform a task is key
throughout the lifespan

Application of Social Learning

Theory: Behavior Modification
Fears and phobias
Guided participation: Observe and
imitate
Covert modeling: Imaginal

Anxiety
Fear of medical treatment
Test anxiety

Assessment of Banduras Theory:

Self-efficacy

Age and gender differences

Physical appearance
Academic performance
Career choice and job performance
Physical health
Mental health
Coping with stress

Assessment of Banduras Theory:

Television and Aggressive Behaviors
Relationship between watching
violence and imitating violence
Assessment of Banduras Theory
Strengths:
Focus on observable behavior- research
support
Practical application to real-world
problems
Large-scale changes

"In psychology ... we have

wholes which, instead of
being the sum of parts
existing independently, give
their parts specific functions
or properties that can only
be defined in relation to the
whole in question."
Wolfgang Khler:
Human Perception. (La
perception humaine,
1930)

GESTALT
PSYCHOLOGY
The term gestalt means form or
configuration.
Proponents are Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Kofka
They studied perception and
concluded
that
perceivers
(or
learners) were not passive, but rather
active.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES

Law of Proximity
Law of Similarity
Law of Closure
Law of Good Continuation
Law of Good Pragnanz
Law of Figure / Ground

 Law of
Proximity
Elements
that are closer
together will
be perceived
as a coherent
object.

 Law of
Similarity
Elements
that look
similar will be
perceived as
part of the
same form.

 Law of
Closure
We tend to
fill the gaps or
close the
figures we
perceive.

 Law of Good
Continuation
Individuals
have the
tendency to
continue
contours
whenever the
elements of
the pattern
establish an
implied
direction.

 Law of Good
Pragnanz
The stimulus
will be
organized into
as good a
figure as
possible.

 Law of
Figure /
Ground
We tend to
pay attention
and perceive
things in the
foreground
first.

Gestalt Principles and

the Teaching-Learning
Process

An individual has
inner and outer
forces that affect
his perceptions
and also his
learning.
Kurt Lewin

Inner Forces
Motivation
Attitudes
Feelings

Outer
forces
Attitude
Behavior

MODULE 13
INFORMATION PROCESSING

BRUNER'S
CONSTRUCTI
VIST
THEORY

Jerome Bruner
Born in New York City, October 1, 1915. He
received his A.B. degree from Duke University in
1937 and his Ph.D in 1947 from Harvard.

He

was

Department

on
of

the

faculty

Psychology

at

in

the

Harvard

University from 1952-1972. Next, he was at

Oxford from 1972-1980. Later, he joined
the New York University of Law.

Jerome Bruner

In 1960, he published

The

Process

of

Education; a landmark book which led to much

experimentation and a broad range of educational
programs in 1960s.
Howard

Gardner

and

other

young

researchers worked under Bruner and were muchinfluenced by his work.

In the early 70s, he left Harvard to teach
in University of Oxford for several years. He
returned to Harvard in 1979.

BRUNER'S MAIN CONCEPTS

Three ways to represent knowledge
Spiral Curriculum
Principles of instruction by Bruner
Discovering Learning
Four major aspects that should address in
theory of instruction
Four things about object
Several Kinds of Categories

Three Ways to Represent Knowledge

1. Enactive Representation
At the earliest ages, children learn about the
world through actions on physical objects and
the outcomes of these actions.

2. Iconic Representation
This second stage is when learning can be
obtained through using models and pictures.

3. Symbolic
In this Representation
third stage, the learner has

developed the ability to think in abstract

terms.

Spiral Curriculum
Teachers must revisit the curriculum
by

teaching

the

same

content

in

different ways depending on students

developmental levels.

Principles of
instruction by
Bruner

Readiness
Instruction must be concerned with
the experiences and contexts that
make the student willing and able to
learn.

Spiral Organization
Instruction must be structured so
that it can be easily grasped by the
student.

Going Beyond the

Information Given
Instruction should be designed to
facilitate extrapolation and or fill in
the gaps.

Discovering Learning
Refers to obtaining knowledge for
oneself.

Four major
aspects that
should address
in theory of
instruction

Predisposition to Learn
He

introduced

the

readiness for learning.

ideas

of

Structure of Knowledge
The

ways

in

which

body

of

knowledge can be structured so that it

can be most readily grasped by the
learner.

Effective Sequencing
No one sequencing will fit every
learner, but in general, the lesson can
be presented in increasing difficulty.

Reinforcement
Rewards and punishment should be
selected and paced appropriately.

Four things
about object

Criterial Attributes
Required

characteristics

for

inclusion of an object in a category.

How the criterial

attributes are combined
The second rule prescribes how the
criterial attributes are combined.

Weight to various
properties
The third rule assigns weight to
various properties.

Sets acceptance limits

on the attributes
The fourth rule sets acceptance
limits on attributes.

Several Kinds
of Categories

Identity Categories
Categories include objects based on
their attributes or features.

Equivalent Categories
Equivalence can be determined by
affective
objects

criteria,
equivalent

which
by

render
emotional

reactions, functional criteria, based on

related functions.

Coding Systems
Categories that serve to recognize
sensory input.

I
S
'
T
R
C
E
U
N
R
U
T
R
S
B N
O
Y
T
C S
R
I
O
V E

The principles of Bruner launched

the notion that people interpret world
mostly in

terms of similarities in

differences.

This

is

contribution

to

how

valuable
individuals

construct their own models or view of

the world.

David Ausubel : Meaningful Verbal

Learning & Subsumption Theory
David P. Ausubel was born in 1918
Grew up in Brooklyn, NY
Attended the University of Pennsylvania, taking the
pre-medical course and majoring in Psychology

In 1973 he retired from academic life to devote full time

to his psychiatric practice
His principal interests in psychiatry have been general
psychopathology, ego development, drug addiction, and
forensic psychiatry
In 1976 he received the Thorndike Award from the
American Psychological Association for "Distinguished
Psychological Contributions to Education".

Introduction

-Supported the theory that pupils form

& organise knowledge by themselves
-Emphasized the importance of verbal
learning / language-related learning
which he consider to be very effective
for pupils of the age 11 or 12 & above

-Pupils gradually learn to associate

new knowledge with existing
concepts in their mental structures
-To ensure meaningful teaching,
necessary to avoid rote memorising
of facts. Pupils need to manipulate
ideas actively

Advance Organizer

-Presents an overview of the

information to be covered in detail
during the exposition that follows
-Can be classified : exposition or
comparison type

Advance Organizer of the

Exposition Type
-While presenting new material
-Use beginning of lesson
-Presents several encompassing
generalisations where detailed
contents will be added later

Advance Organizer of the Comparison

Type
-Useful when the knowledge to be
presented is new to pupils
-Compares new material with knowledge
already known by emphasising the
similarities between 2 types of material
& showing the information that is to be
learnt
-Ausubels teaching approach is
deductive in nature

SPECIFIC

Step 4:The pupils study

specific examples
Step 3:The teacher
presents examples
Step 2:The teacher
explains important terms
Step 1:The teacher
presents general statement
or abstraction of lesson
ADVANCE ORGANIZER
GENERAL
Deductive Teaching Model: Advance Organizer as the
basis of the lesson

A concerned with how

students learn large amounts
of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations
in a learning activities

Learning is based on the

representational,
superordinate and
combinatorial processes
that occur during the
reception of information.

Meaningful
Meaningful
Reception
Reception
LearningTheory
Theory
Learning

Meaningful learning results

when new information is
acquired by linking the new
information in the learner's
own cognitive structure

A primary process in learning

is subsumption in which
new material is related to
relevant ideas in the existing
cognitive structure on a nonverbatim basis (previous
knowledge)

Ausubels Meaningful Learning

The processes of meaningful

learning
Ausubel proposed four processes by
which meaningful learning can occur :
Derivative subsumption
Correlative subsumption
Superordinate learning
Combinatorial learning

Derivative subsumption

Describes the situation in which the new information

pupils learn is an instance or example of a concept
that pupils have already learned
Example (Stage 1) :
PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE : Let's suppose Ali
have acquired a basic concept such as "tree
have green leave, branch, fruits
Ali learn about a kind of tree that he have
never seen before persimmon tree conforms to his previous understanding of
tree
His new knowledge of persimmon trees is
attached to the concept of tree, without
substantially altering that concept in any
way

Correlative subsumption
more "valuable" learning than that of derivative
subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level
concept
Example (Stage 2) :
Now, let's suppose Ali encounter a new
kind of tree that has red leaves, rather
than green
Accommodate this new information Ali
have to alter or extend your concept of
tree to include the possibility of red
leaves

Superordinate learning
Example (Stage 3) :
Ali was well acquainted with maples, oaks,
apple trees etc., but pupils still did not
know, until they were taught that these
were all examples of deciduous trees
In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of
the concept, but you did not know the concept itself
until it was taught to pupils.

Combinatorial learning
Example (Stage 3) :
Ali learn about modification on the plants
part, Ali might relate it to previously
acquired knowledge of how papyrus tree
used to produce paper

It describes a process by which the new idea is derived

from another idea that is comes from his previous
knowledge (in a different, but related, "branch")

Students could think of this as learning by analogy

Principles
Principles of
of Ausubel's
Ausubel's
Meaningful
Meaningful Reception
Reception
Learning
Learning Theory
Theory within
withinaa
classroom
classroom setting
setting

General ideas of a subject (general statement):

Must be presented first
then progressively differentiated in terms of
detail and specificity.

Instructional materials :
should attempt to integrate new material with
previously presented information
Using comparisons and cross-referencing of
new and old ideas.

Principles
Principles of
of Ausubel's
Ausubel's
Meaningful
Meaningful Reception
Reception
Learning
Learning Theory
Theory within
within aa
classroom
classroom setting
setting

Advance organizers :
Instructors should incorporate advance
organizers when teaching a new concept

Examples :
Instructors should use a number of examples
and focus on both similarities and differences.

The most
important single
factor influencing
learning is what
the learner
already knows..

Gagns Conditions
of Learning
What is
learning?

Gagn believed that an external observer

could recognize learning by noting behavioral
changes that remains persistent over time
(Gagn, 1974)
He also stated that maturation is not learning
because the individual does not receive
stimulation from the outside environment
(Gagn, 1974).
Learning has two parts, one that is external to

Gagns Conditions of
Learning

Conditions of Learning
Learning is an important causal factor in
development
Human learning is cumulative
Learning of certain skills contributes to the
learning of more complex skills

Human learning is both complex and

diverse
Learning is set of cognitive processes that
transforms the stimulation from the
environment into capabilities

Gagnes Principle

Five Varieties of Learning

The five varieties of

Learning

The five varieties of

Learning

The five varieties of

Learning

Nine Instructional Events

1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objectives
(expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
(retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective
perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic
encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer
(generalization)

CONSTRUCTIVISM:
KNOWLEDGE
CONTRUCTION/
CONCEPT LEARNING
Constructivism
- is a theory of learning based on the
idea that learners construct
knowledge for themselves.

TWO VIEWS OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
INDIVIDUAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
(COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM)
- it emphasizes individual, internal
construction of knowledge.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
- it emphasizes that knowledge exists in
a social context and is initially shared
with others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
1. Learners construct understanding.
2. New learning depends on current
understanding.
3. Learning is facilitated by social
interaction.

ORGANIZING
KNOWLEDGE
People store knowledge in
many different ways.

CONCEPTS
- is a way of grouping or
categorizing objects or events
in our mind.

Concepts as feature lists

- involves learning specific features that
characterize positive instance of the
concept.
DEFINING FEATURE- characteristics
present in all instances.
CORRELATIONAL FEATURE- is one
that is present in many positive instances
but not essential for concept
membership.

Concepts as prototypes
prototype- is an idea or a
visual image of a typical
example.

Concepts as exemplars
exemplars- represent a
variety of examples.

SCHEMA
- is an organized body of knowledge
about something.

SCRIPT
- is a schema that includes a series of
predictable events about a specific
activity
.

What is transfer of learning?

Transfer of learning is about how teachers
want their students to apply the knowledge and
the skills they learn in class to other situation.

Transfer of learning is about.

When one recognizes a situation as something
similar in a way to what he has learned before,
his tendency is to use the knowledge and skills
he has learned to this situation

TRANSFER OF LEARNING

TYPES OF
LEARNING

CONDITIONS AND
PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING

 Happens when learning in one

context or with one set of materials
affects performance in another
context or with other related
materials.
It is applying to another situation
what was previously learned.

 The circumstance of learning differs

significantly from situations when
what is learned is to be applied.
The educational goals are not met
until transfer occurs. that's why
transfer of learning is a very
important aspect of instruction..

 Positive transfer
occurs when learning in one context improves
performance in some other context.
Negative transfer
Refers to transfer between very similar
contexts. Also referred to as specific transfer.
Far transfer
Refers to transfer between context that on
appearance seem remote and alien to one
another. Also called as general transfer

These principles are based on the

factors that affect transfer of learning.
Conditions/ factors
affecting transfer
of learning

Principle of
transfer

Implication

The more similar the

two situations are,
the greater the
chances that learning
from one situation will
be transferred to
other situation

Involve students in
learning situations
and tasks that are
similar as possible to
the situations where
they would apply the
task

Degree of
meaningfulness/
relevance of learning

Meaningful learning
leads to greater
transfer than rote
learning

Remember to provide
opportunities for
learners to link new
material to what they
learned in the past

Length of
instructional time

The longer the time

spent in instruction,
the greater the
probability of transfer

To ensure transfer,
teach a few topics in
depth rather than
many topics tackled
in a shallow manner

Similarity between
two learning
situations

Conditions/ factors
affecting transfer of
learning

Principle of transfer

Implication

Variety of learning
experiences

Exposure to many
examples and
opportunities for
practice to encourage
transfer

Illustrate new concepts

and principles with a
variety of examples.
Plan activities that
allow your learners to
practice their newly
learned skills

Context for learners

experiences

Transfer of learning is
most likely to happen
when learners discover
that what they learned
is applicable to various
contexts

Relate topic in one

subject in one subject
to topics in other
subjects or disciplines.
Relate it also to real life
situation

Focus on principles
rather than task

Principles transfer
easier that facts.

Zero in on principles
related to each topic
together with strategies
based on those
principle s.

Emphasis on
metacognition

Student reflection
improves transfer of

Encourage students to
take responsibility for

MODULE 19
Facilitating Learning and
Blooms Taxonomys of
Objectives

Levels of Blooms
Taxonomy
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation

Knowledge
remembering
Memorizing
Recognizing
Recalling identification and
Recall of information

Comprehension
Interpreting
Translating from one medium to
another
Describing in ones own words
Organization and selection of facts
and ideas

Application
Problem solving
Applying information to produce
some result
Use of facts, rules and principles

Analysis
Subdividing something to show how it is
put together
Finding the underlying structure of a
communication
Identifying motives
Separation of a whole into component parts

Synthesis
Creating a unique, original product
that may be in verbal form or may be
a physical object
Combination of ideas to form a new
whole

Evaluation
Making value decisions about issues
Resolving controversies or
differences of opinion
Development of opinions,
judgements or decisions

Effective Questioning Techniques

Pose the question first, before asking
a student to respond.
Allow plenty of think time by
waiting at least 7-10 seconds before
expecting students to respond.

 Make sure you give all students the

opportunity to respond rather than
relying on volunteers.
Hold students accountable by
expecting, requiring, and facilitating
their participation and contributions.
Establish a safe atmosphere for risk
taking by guiding students in the
process of learning from their mistakes

Torrances Creativity Framework

father of Creativity
professor of emeritus
of educational
psychology
The Torrance Tests of
Creative Thinking

FLUENCY
Many responses within a category
For example

typing

styles

typing

styles

typing

typing

styles

styles

typing

styles

FLEXIBILITY
Stretching or shifting the mind to
generate a variety of categories
For example

typing cases
typing styles
typing
typing sizes
sizes

ELABORATE
Adding details for interest or
clarity
For example

What specific idea will

make the idea easier to
understand or more
interesting
interesting

ORIGINALITY
Unique ideas that are relevant,
but not obvious
For example
Beginning of the greatest tea = ?
Design a new ______ that is better than the
one you have

Creative Problem
Solving
Osborns Checklist the origin of Classical
Brainstorming is the root of creative
problem solving (CPS).

 A basic rule ofBrainstormingis build

onto ideas already suggested.Alex
Osborn, the originator ofclassical
brainstorming, first communicated
this. A checklist was formulated as a
means of transforming an existing
idea into a new one. The checklist is
designed to have a flexible, trial and
error type of approach.

The Checklist:
Adapt? Is there anything else like this? What
does this tell you? Is the past comparable?
Modify? Give it a new angle? Alter the colour,
sound, odour, meaning, motion, and shape?
Magnify? Can anything be added, time,
frequency, height, length, strength? Can it
be duplicated, multiplied or exaggerated?
Minify? Can anything be taken away? Made
smaller? Lowered? Shortened? Lightened?
Omitted? Broken up?

 Substitute? Different ingredients used? Other

material? Other processes? Other place? Other
approach? Other tone of voice? Someone else?
Rearrange? Swap components? Alter the pattern,
sequence or layout? Change the pace or
schedule? Transpose cause and effect?
Reverse? Opposites? Backwards? Reverse roles?
Change shoes? Turn tables? Turn other cheek?
Transpose +/-?
Combine? Combine units, purposes, appeals or
ideas? A blend, alloy, or an ensemble?

Classical Brainstorming
Avoid criticising ideas / suspend judgement. All
ideas are as valid as each other
Listen to other ideas, and try to piggy back on
them to other ideas.
Free-wheeling. Don't censor any ideas, keep the
meeting flow going.
Avoid any discussion of ideas or questions, as
these stop the flow of ideas.
Generate ideas - either in an unstructured way
(anyone can say an idea at any time) or structure
(going round the table, allowing people to pass if
they have no new ideas).
Clarify and conclude the session. Ideas that are
identical can be combined, all others should be
kept. It is useful to get a consensus of which ideas

The following, based on Van

Gundy (1988s) description, is
a very brief skeleton of a
very rich process, showing it
in its full 6 x 2 stages form

 Stage 1: Mess finding:Sensitise yourself

(scan, search) for issues (concerns,
challenges, opportunities, etc.) that need to
be tackled.
Divergent techniques include Wouldnt It Be Nice
If (WIBNI) and Wouldnt It Be Awful If (WIBAI)
BRAINSTORMINGto identify desirable
outcomes, and obstacles to be overcome.
Convergent techniques include the identification
of hotspots (Highlighting), expressed as a list of
IWWMs (In What Ways Might), and selection in
terms of ownership criteria (e.g. problem-owners
motivation and ability to influence it) and outlook
criteria (e.g. urgency, familiarity, stability).

 Stage 2: Data finding:Gather information

about the problem.
Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H
(Who, Why, What, When, Where and How) and
listing of wants, sources and data: List all your
information wants as a series of question; for
each, list possible sources of answers; then
follow these up and for each source, list what
you found.
Convergent techniques again include:
identifying hotspots (Highlighting); Mindmapping to sort and classify the information
gathered; and also restating the problem in the
light of your richer understanding of it.

 Stage 3: Problem finding:convert a fuzzy

statement of the problem into a broad
statement more suitable for idea finding.
Divergent techniques include asking Why?
etc. the repeatable questions and
Five W's and H.
Convergent techniques include Highlighting
again, reformulation of problem-statements to
meet the criteria that they contain only one
problem and no criteria, and selection of the
most promising statement (but NB that the
mental stretching that the activity gives to
the participants can be as important as the
actual statement chosen).

 Stage 4: Idea Finding:generate as many

ideas as possible
Divergence using any of a very wide range of
idea-generating techniques. The general rules
ofClassic Brainstorming(such as deferring
judgement) are likely to under-pin all of these.
Convergence can again involve hotspots or
mind-mapping, the combining of different
ideas, and the short-listing of the most
promising handful, perhaps with some thought
for the more obvious evaluation criteria, but
not over-restrictively.

 Stage 5: Solution finding:Generate and

select obvious evaluation criteria (using an
expansion/contraction cycle) and develop
(which may include combining) the shortlisted ideas from Idea Finding as much as
you can in the light of these criteria. Then
opt for the best of these improved ideas
(e.g. using Comparison tables).

 Stage 6: Acceptance finding:How can the

suggestion you have just selected be made up to
standard and put into practice? Shun negativity,
and continue to apply deferred judgement
problems are exposed to be solved, not to
dishearten progress. Action plans are better
developed in small groups of 2 3 rather than in
a large group (unless you particularly want
commitment by the whole group). Particularly for
people problems it is often worth developing
several alternative action plans.

m
e
l
b
o
r
P
r
o
f
l
e
Other mod
S o lvin g
Branfords IDEAL model
Identify the Problem
Define the problem
Explore solutions
Act on the strategies
Look back and evaluate the effects of your
activity

Meaning and Types

of Motivation

Motivation
is an inner drive that causes you to:
do something
persevere at something
energizes you to do something
initiate
direct
become intense
persistence of behavior

Indicators of a High Level of

Motivation
She/he takes the initiative to undertake learning
tasks, assignments and projects without being
pushed by his/her teachers and parents.
She/he has goals to accomplish and dreams to
realize.
She/he is convinced that accomplishing the
things she/he asked is to accomplish in class
helps her/him realize the goals she/he has set for
herself/himself and their dream in life.

Indicators of a High Level of

Motivation
She/he willing to give up the satisfaction of
immediate goals for the sake of more
important remote goals. An example is she/he
is willing to give up joining her/his barkada to
watch a movie in order to prepare thoroughly
for final examinations.
She/he persists and perseveres in her/his
studies even when things turn out to be
difficult.
She/he does not give up easily.

In contrast, an unmotivated
student:

does not enjoy learning

does not study unless pushed
easily gives up
lacks of perseverance

Types of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation the source of
motivation is from within the person
herself/himself or the activity itself.
Example: A student reads
pocketbooks because it is enjoyable.

 Extrinsic Motivation the source of

motivation is something outside
herself/himself or the rewards and
incentives.
Example: A student studies because
she/he was told by her/his teacher or
because she/he is afraid to fail and
her/his parents makes her/him stop
schooling.

Type of Motivation which

is
More Beneficial
It is obviously that intrinsic
motivation is more beneficial
because it comes from within the
person and it is not after the
incentives or rewards. It is shown in
the enjoyment of the activity itself
and the inner conviction of the
learner that such things are the right

The Role of Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation factors

include:
Rewards
Incentives
Praises or words of
encouragements
Approval of significant others like
teachers, parents, peer group

Opposites:

Punishment
Withdrawal
Privileges
Censure
Ostracism

We may begin employing

extrinsic motivation at the start
but this should fade away as
the students get intrinsically
motivated themselves. It plays
a significant role in the
development of motivated
students.

Theories on Factors
Affecting
Motivation

Factors Affecting
Motivation
these are the elements that
contributes to a particular
result that affects motivation.

Attribution Theory
- explains that we attribute our successes or
failures or other events to several factors. For
instance, you attribute your popularity to your
popular parents or to your own sterling
academic performance. Or you attribute the
poor economic condition you are in to the Land
Reform of the Phil. Govt. (your lands were
subjected to land reform) or to the vices of your
father. These attributions differ from one
another in three ways locus, stability, and
controllability (Ormsrod, 2004).

Locus (place): Internal vs. external.

If your student traces his good grade to
his ability and to his work, he attributes
his good grade to internal factors. If your
student, however, claims that his good
grade is due to the effective teaching of
his teacher or to the adequate library
facilities, he attributes his good grades to
factors external to himself.

Stability Stable vs. unstable.

If you attribute your poor eyesight to what
you have inherited from your parents, then
you are attributing the cause of your sickness
to something stable, something that cannot
change because it is in your genes. If you
attribute it to excessive watching of tv, then
you are claiming that your poor eyesight is
caused by an unstable factor, something that
can change. (You can prolong or shorten your
period of watching tv).

Controllability: Controllable vs.

uncontrollable.

If your student claims his poor academic

performance is due to his teachers ineffective teaching strategy, he attributes his
poor performance to a factor beyond his
control. If, however, your student admits that
his poor class performance is due to his poor
study habits and low motivation, he attributes
the event to factors which are very much
within his control.

Theories on Factors
Affecting Motivation

Attribution Theory
Explains that we attribute our
successes or failures or other events
to several factors.

3 Ways of Attribution from One

Another
1) Locus place: Internal vs. external
2) Stability: Stable vs. unstable
3) Controllability: Controllable vs.
uncontrollable
How does attribution affect
motivation?

Self-efficacy Theory
Is the belief that one has the
necessary capabilities to perform a
task, fulfill role expectations,or meet
a challenging situation successfully.

Self-efficacy enhancing
strategies:
Make sure students master the basic
skills
Help them make noticeable progress
on difficult tasks
Communicate confidence in
students abilities through both
words and actions
Expose them to successful peers

Self-determination and regulation

theories
Students are more likely to be
intrinsically motivated when they
believe they can determine their
learning goals and regulate their
learning.

How to enhance students sense of selfdetermination about school activities?

Self Regulation

Choice Theory
It is a biological theory that suggests
we are born with specific needs that
we are genetically instructed to
satisfy.

Four Basic Psychological

Needs

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Goal Theory

Learning Goal vs. Performance Goal

LEARNING GOAL
A desire to acquire additional knowledge
or master new skills.
PERFORMANCE GOAL
A desire to look good and receive
favorable judgments from others or else
look bad and receive unfavorable
judgments.

Self-determined Goals
When the lesson objectives are
relevant to the life of students, then
students turn out to be more
motivated to learn.

Goal Setting
Major Elements:
1. Goal acceptance
2. Specificity
3. Challenge
4. Performance monitoring
5. Performance feedback

Lesson Objectives must be:

S
M
A
R
T

- smart
- measurable
- attainable
- result-oriented
- time-bound

 Students are more likely to be

intrinsically motivated when they are
motivated towards deep mastery of a
topic, instead of just rote-learning
performance to get good grades.

Students
diversity in
motivation

What are the factors that

influences students
motivation?

Students who, by themselves are

already as diverse, also differ in
motivation.
These diversity in motivation may
be traced to differences in age,
developmental stage, gender, socioeconomic and cultural background.

How these factors

influences students
motivation?

Our class is a conglomerate of

students with varying ages, and
gender and cultural and
socioeconomic background.
Their motivational drives reflect the
element of the culture in which they
grow up family, their friends, school,
books and even church.
To motivate all of them for learning,
it is best to employ differentiated
approaches.

As the adage goes . . .

Different folks, different
strokes
meaning . . .
What is medicine for one may
be poison to others.

There are two principles to

consider regarding social and
cultural influences on motivation.
1.Students are most likely to model
the behaviors they believe are
relevant to their situation.
2.Students develop greater efficacy
for a task when they see others
like themselves performing the
task successfully.(Ormrod, 2004)

1. Students need models who are

similar to themselves in terms of
race, cultural background,
socioeconomic status, gender, and (
if applicable) disability.
(Ormrod,2004.)
2. It must be good to expose our
students to models of their age and
to models who come from similar
cultural, socioeconomic
backgrounds.

Do we have to limit ourselves

to live models?
Not necessarily. We can make
our students read biographies and
autobiographies of successful
individuals who were in situations
similar to them.

MODULE 24
Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation

The Classroom
climate
Points to Ponder . . .
1.What is a classroom
climate that facilitates
learning?
2. What takes place in a
classroom where a business-

What is a classroom?
It is a physical space where
learning is facilitated. It is a place
where classes meet.

What is climate?
It is the prevailing influence or
environmental conditions
characterizing a group or period. It
is synonymous to atmosphere.

What is a classroom climate?

The classroom climate is more a product
of the interaction between and among
teacher and students than that of the
physical condition of the classroom.
The physical condition of the classroom
may exert an influence on the social
interaction among the personalities in
class but it may not contribute as much
as the classroom social interaction does.

Going back to question number 1:

What then is the classroom

climate that is conducive for
learning?
- is one that is non-threatening yet
business-like.

In answering question number 2:

What takes place in a
classroom where a businesslike and a non-threatening
atmosphere prevail?

It is a classroom where:
rules and procedure are discussed
on the first day of class;
students are involved in the design
of rules and procedures;
techniques to acknowledge and
reinforce acceptable behavior and
provide negative consequences are
employed;

 clear limits for unacceptable

behavior are established;
there is a healthy balance
between dominance and
cooperation;
the teacher is aware of the needs
of different types of students;
the teacher is fully aware of the
happenings in class; and
students responsibility for their
own behavior is enhanced.

To summarize . . .
1. The classroom climate is a by-product
of the social interaction between and
among teacher and students.
2. The conducive classroom climate is
one that is business-like yet nonthreatening.
3. It is a kind of classroom where:
a. expectations, rules and procedures,
limits on behavior are made from the
very first day of school;

b. the teacher, who is the leader, is

fully aware of what is happening
and is in control of the classroom
and proceedings and yet conveys
the message that he/she is
interested in the concerns of the
students as an individual and the
class as a whole;
c. students are responsible for
their own behavior.

The Physical Learning

Environment
A conducive physical learning
environment is one that:

 Allows maximum interaction between

teacher and student and among
students.
Allows student movement without
unnecessary distraction.
Allows teacher to survey the
whole class.
It is safe, clean, orderly

 It is well-ventilated, spacious,
and adequately lighted
It makes possible rearrangement of chairs as the
need arises.

Assessment for Learning

ASSESSMENT is basically the
process of gathering information about
the students learning; then analyzing and
interpreting them for the purpose of
making decision.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT
Diagnosis
Placement
Effectiveness of the Program
Student Feedback
Research

Researched-Based Principle of
Assessment for Learning
Assessment for learning:
Assessment for learning should be
part of effective planning and learning
Focuses on how students learn.
Assessment for learning should focus
on how student learn.
Is central to classroom practice.
Assessment of learning should be
considered central to classroom practice.

Is a key professional skill.

Assessment of learning should be
considered as a key professional skill
for teachers.
Is sensitive and constructive.
Assessment of learning must be
sensitive and constructive because
assessment has an emotional impact.

FOSTER MOTIVATION.

Assessment of learning should

consider the importance of learner
motivation.
Promotes understanding of goals and
criteria.
Assessment of learning should
promote commitment to learning goals
and a shared understanding of the
criteria by which they are assessed.

Helps learners to know to improve.

Assessment of learning should include
constructive guidance on how learners can
improve.
Develops the capacity for
self-assessment.
Assessment of learning develops
learners skills on self-assessment.
Recognizes all educational achievement.
Assessment of learning should
recognize the full range of achievement
of all learners.

Code of Ethics for Professional

Teachers

PREAMBLE
Teachers
are
duly
licensed
professionals who possess dignity and
reputation with high moral values as
well as technical and professional
competence. In the practice of their
noble profession, they strictly adhere
to, observe, and practice this set of
ethical and moral principles, standard,
and values.

Assessment
Assessmentfor
forlearning
learningisismore
morein
in
line
with
Authentic
Assessment.
line with Authentic Assessment.
Sometimes
Sometimesreferred
referredto
toas
as
alternative
alternativeassessment,
assessment,
authentic
authenticassessment
assessmentseeks
seeksto
to
directly
directlyassess
assessstudent
studentperformance
performance
through
real-life
tasks
or
products.
through real-life tasks or products.
Example:
Example:tasks
tasksand
andrubrics,
rubrics,and
and
portfolios
portfolios

ARTICLE 1
Scope and Limitations
Section 2: This Code covers all public
and private school teachers in all
educational
institutions
at
the
preschool, primary, elementary, and
secondary levels whether academic,
vocational, special, technical or nonformal. The term teacher shall
include industrial art or vocational
teachers
and
all
other
persons
performing supervisory and / or
administrative functions in all school
at the aforesaid levels, whether on
full-time or part-time basis.

Diagnosis used to determine any

special learning need that a learner may
have
Placement the learner can be placed in
the best learning environment where he
can better learn ands develop.
Effectiveness of the Program can also
provide data about how a particular
curriculum or program is effective in
meeting its goals
Student Feedback used to
communicate to the learner his current
level of performance, specifically his
strong and weak points.
Research can also be used as a source
of very useful data in a wide range
topics in the field of educational

Researched-Based Principles of
Assessment for Learning
The group proposed 10
principles. According to
them, assessment for
learning:

1. Is part of effective planning. There

should be an opportunity for both the learner and the

teacher to use the assessment of progress in looking
at the learning goals.

2. Focuses on how students learn. The

teacher should understand the nature of learning.

3. Is central to classroom practice.

Teachers would come to realize that a lot of what they

do inside the classroom can be seen as a form of
assessment.

4. Is a key professional skill. It is vital that

teachers acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and

values about the entire assessment process.

5. Is sensitive and constructive. As future

teacher, bear in mind that your comments, marks and

grades, as well as the manner you communicate them
to students can affect their self-confidence.

6. Fosters motivation. Assessment should

focus on progress and achievement rather than failure.

7. Promotes understanding of goals and

criteria. Assessment of learning should promote
commitment to learning goals
understanding of the criteria by
assessed.

and a shared
which they are

8. Helps learners know how to improve.

Assessment of learning should include constructive
guidance on how learners can improve.

9. Develops the capacity for selfassessment. Assessment should allow learners

to apply metacognitive skills. In this way, assessment

empowers the student to take a more active role in
his own learning process.

10. Recognizes all educational

achievement. Assessment should be able to

integrate the totality of the learners achievement.

DIVINE HEIDI G. CABIGUIN

BSE E/ 3 IRREG.

PROF. ANABELLA C. GOMEZ

EDUC 38 FACILITATOR

JANUARY 15, 2013